abaxial~facing away from axis or stem, such as the lower surface of a leaf. cf. adaxial.~ abortive~imperfectly developed; infertile.~ abscission~the normal shedding from a plant of an organ that is mature or aged, e.g. a ripe fruit, an old leaf. adj. abscissile.~ acaulescent~without a trunk.~ accessory fruit~a fruit, or group of fruits derived from one flower, in which the conspicuous, fleshy portion develops from the receptacle and is shed with the true fruit(s) attached, e.g. apple, rose hip and strawberry. Fig. 18 C, V & W.~{Fig. 18 C, V & W}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. accrescent~expanding after flowering, increasing in size with age, e.g. the calyx expanding around the base of a fruit.~ achene~a dry indehiscent 1-seeded fruit, from an either superior or inferior ovary of 1 carpel, with the seed not fused to the fruit wall; e.g. as in Ranunculaceae (from a superior ovary) and Asteraceae (from an inferior ovary and usually topped by the pappus and sometimes called a cypsela). Fig. 18 Q, R & W.~{Fig. 18 Q, R & W}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. acicular~needle-shaped.~ actinomorphic~of a flower with the parts in each whorl particularly sepals, petals and stamens not differing in shape, size or placement. The flower therefore can be bisected symmetrically in several planes. cf. zygomorphic.~ aculeate~prickly.~ acumen~a long, tapering point.~ acuminate~gradually tapering to a point. Fig. 6 C.~{Fig. 6 C}Fig. 6. Leaf Apices. A, subulate; B, aristate; C, acuminate; D, acute; E, obtuse; F, truncate; G, emarginate; H, retuse; I, obcordate; J, hooked; K, mucronate. acute~pointed, having a short sharp apex, the converging edges forming an angle of less than 900. Fig. 6 D. cf. obtuse.~{Fig. 6 D}Fig. 6. Leaf Apices. A, subulate; B, aristate; C, acuminate; D, acute; E, obtuse; F, truncate; G, emarginate; H, retuse; I, obcordate; J, hooked; K, mucronate. adaxial~facing towards the axis or stem. cf. abaxial.~ adhesion~where two dissimilar parts or organs stick together but without organic fusion. adj. adherent. cf. cohesion.~ adnate~(1) fusion of unlike parts, e.g. stamens fused to the corolla, cf. connate; (2) of an anther which has a broad point of attachment by which it is rigidly held at the apex of the filament, as in some eucalypts (family Myrtaceae). cf. versatile.~ adventitious~term describing any organ arising in an abnormal position, e.g. roots arising from the shoot system.~ adventive~introduced accidentally, as most exotic weeds are; often used of introductions that are not fully naturalized.~ aerial root~an adventitious root growing from the stem above ground level.~ aestivation~arrangement of the sepals and petals or their lobes in the unopened bud. Fig. 11. cf. vernation.~{Fig. 11}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. aff.~with affinities to.~ agglutinated~stuck together, formed into clumps of cells, e.g. of pollen grains.~ aggregate fruit~cluster of fruits derived from a single flower in which the carpels are free, or almost so, from each other. e.g. as in many Ranunculaceae, Annonaceae, Rosaceae. Fig. 18 V–X. cf. multiple fruit.~{Fig. 18 V–X}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. albumen~see endosperm.~ allopatric~of two or more taxa, having different ranges of distribution, not overlapping. cf. sympatric.~ alternate~(1) of leaves or flowers, inserted singly at different levels along the branches (commonly used to include spiral arrangement), Fig. 2 A & B; (2) between, as in ‘stamens alternate with the petals’.~{Fig. 2 A & B}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. amphicarpous~with two kinds of fruits; differing in position, character or time of ripening.~ amphistomatic~leaves with stomates on both upper and lower surfaces. cf. hypostomatic.~ amphitropous~of an ovule with the body bent or curved on both sides so that the micropyle is near the funicle; the embryo sac is curved. Fig. 21 E. cf. anatropous, campylotropous, hemitropous, orthotropous.~{Fig. 21 E}Fig. 21. Ovules. A, orthotropous ovule; B–F, ovules in longitudinal section: B, orthotropous ovule; C, hemitropous ovule; D, campylotropous ovule; E, amphitropous ovule; F, anatropous ovule. amplexicaul (perfoliate)~a term used of a leaf base, where it clasps the stem. Fig. 4 F.~{Fig. 4 F}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules. ampulliform~swollen at base like flask.~ anastomosing~fusing to form a network, as in the veins of a leaf.~ anatropous~of an ovule, with the body completely inverted so that the micropyle area is adjacent to the funicle, the embryo sac is more or less straight. Fig. 21 F. cf. amphitropous, campylotropous, hemitropous, orthotropous.~{Fig. 21 F}Fig. 21. Ovules. A, orthotropous ovule; B–F, ovules in longitudinal section: B, orthotropous ovule; C, hemitropous ovule; D, campylotropous ovule; E, amphitropous ovule; F, anatropous ovule. androdioecious~of plants, having bisexual flowers and male flowers on separate plants. cf. andromonoecious, dioecious, monoecious, polygamodioecious, polygamomonoecious, polygamous.~ androecium~a collective name for the stamens, the male part of the flower. cf. gynoecium.~ androgynaecandrous~inflorescence with male flowers above and below female flowers, as in the spikes of some species of Carex.~ androgynophore~a stalk bearing both the stamens and superior ovary, e.g. in Passifloraceae. cf. gynophore.~ androgynous~inflorescence with male flowers above female flowers, as in the spikes of some species of Carex.~ andromonoecious~of plants, having bisexual and male flowers on the same plant. cf. androdioecious, dioecious, monoecious, polygamodioecious, polygamomonoecious, polygamous.~ anemophilous~pollinated by wind.~ angiosperms~the flowering plants; plants with ovules enclosed in an ovary.~ annual~a plant completing its life cycle within one year from germination to fruiting and then dying.~ annular~ring-shaped.~ annulus~the elastic ring of cells that initiates dehiscence in the sporangium of a fern.~ anomalous~irregular; abnormal.~ anterior~away from the axis, toward the subtending (enclosing) bract. cf. posterior.~ anther~the pollen-bearing part of the stamen, most often 2-locular with the loculi (pollen cavities) joined by the connective. Fig. 20 A–E.~{Fig. 20 A–E}Fig. 20. Anthers, Stamens. A, anther dorsifixed and versatile; B, anther basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal; C, cross section of anther showing loculi and regions of dehiscence; D, dehiscence by valves; E, dehiscence by apical pores; F, diadelphous stamens; G, monadelphous stamens; H, stamens with anthers fused (and with terminal appendages), filaments free. antheridium~the fertile organ of a male gametophyte or the male organ of a bisexual gametophyte, in which male gametes are formed. cf. archegonium.~ anthesis~the time of flowering; the time when pollen is shed.~ anthocarp~a false fruit consisting of the true fruit surrounded by the base of the perianth, as in Nyctaginaceae.~ anthotelic (= determinate inflorescence)~an inflorescence with the inflorescence or parts of the inflorescence ending in a flower or an aborted but distinctly floral bud, e.g. panicle, thyrsoid, dichasium, monochasium, Fig. 17 A, B, D & E. cf. indeterminate.~{Fig. 17 A, B, D & E}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). antipetalous~opposite the petals.~ antisepalous~opposite the sepals.~ antrorse~turned towards the apex, e.g. of hairs. cf. retrorse.~ apetalous~without petals.~ apex~the tip. pl. apices.~ apical~of the apex or attached at the apex or top, e.g. ‘ovules attached to an apical placenta’. Fig. 13 G.~{Fig. 13 G}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. apiculate~with a small abrupt point which is demarcated from the organ to which it is attached, e.g. of some anthers.~ apiculum~a short, abrupt, flexible point. adj. apiculate.~ apocarpous~a gynoecium consisting of two or more carpels which are free and distinct from each other, e.g. as in Ranunculaceae and Dilleniaceae. cf. syncarpous.~ apomixis~the process whereby a plant produces viable seed without fertilization. adj. apomictic.~ appendage~an attachment developed on and projecting from the surface of an organ, e.g. anthers Fig. 20 H.~{Fig. 20 H}Fig. 20. Anthers, Stamens. A, anther dorsifixed and versatile; B, anther basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal; C, cross section of anther showing loculi and regions of dehiscence; D, dehiscence by valves; E, dehiscence by apical pores; F, diadelphous stamens; G, monadelphous stamens; H, stamens with anthers fused (and with terminal appendages), filaments free. appendiculate~with a small appendage or projection.~ appressed~pressed closely against another organ, e.g. of hairs on a leaf.~ approximate~growing close together; almost so.~ aquatic~living in water.~ arborescent~tree-like.~ archegonium~a multicellular female sex organ producing and surrounding the egg.~ arcuate~curved like a bow.~ areolate~of surface pattern or venation, divided into many angular or squarish spaces, e.g. the venation and surface pattern in dried specimens in many Lauraceae. Fig. 9 I.~{Fig. 9 I}Fig. 9. Venation Patterns. A, pinnate; B, 3-veined from base; C, palmate; D, leaves palmately veined, lobes pinnately veined; E, longitudinal; F, parallel; G, dichotomous; H, reticulate; I, areolate. areole~(1) in Cactaceae, a cluster of hairs and/or spines borne at the node of a leafless stem; (2) a space in any reticulated surface, e.g. space between veins. adj. areolate.~ aril~an expansion of the funicle into a fleshy or membranous appendage, sometimes partially or wholly covering the surface of the seed, and often brightly coloured, as in some Sapindaceae. Fig. 19 C. adj. arillate.~{Fig. 19 C}Fig. 19. Domatia, Glands etc. A, hairy domatia; B, pit domatia; C, seeds with arils; D, seeds with caruncles; E, stalked petiolar glands; F, basal lamina glands; G, marginal gland on wattle phyllode; H, bipinnate leaf with petiolar gland and jugary gland. aristate~having a stiff, bristle-like awn or tip. Fig. 6 B.~{Fig. 6 B}Fig. 6. Leaf Apices. A, subulate; B, aristate; C, acuminate; D, acute; E, obtuse; F, truncate; G, emarginate; H, retuse; I, obcordate; J, hooked; K, mucronate. aristulate~with a minute bristle.~ armed~with spines and/or prickles.~ article~(1) part of an organ which separates readily from the rest of an organ, e.g. as in a lomentum; (2) portion of branchlet between whorls of teeth in Casuarinaceae.~ articulated~jointed; usually separating at the point of articulation into segments or articles, e.g. see unifoliolate leaf.~ ascending~at first spreading horizontally and then becoming erect. Fig. 1 B.~{Fig. 1 B}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. asexual~without that part of the life cycle which involves fertilization and meiosis.~ asperate~rough with hairs or points.~ asymmetric (oblique)~of a leaf, leaf base or other organ, having the sides unequal. Fig. 7 E.~{Fig. 7 E}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. atropous~see orthotropous.~ attenuate~narrowing gradually. Fig. 7 A.~{Fig. 7 A}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. auct. non~(auctorum non., Latin) not of author; used to indicate that the preceding name has been misapplied by certain authors and is not that described by the succeeding authority.~ auricle~(1) an ear-like outgrowth at the base of the sheath of some grasses and other monocots; (2) an ear-shaped lobe at the base of a leaf or other organ. adj. auriculate. Fig. 7 G.~{Fig. 7 G}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. autotrophic~independent of other organisms in respect of organic nutrition, able to form carbohydrates by process of photosynthesis. cf. parasite.~ awn~a bristle-like appendage terminating an organ or inserted on its back. adj. awned. cf. aristate.~ axil~the upper angle between one part of a plant and another part, e.g. the stem and a leaf, primary and secondary veins. adj. axillary.~ axile~(1) on the axis; (2) of placentation, with the placentas and ovules along the central axis of the ovary in a compound ovary with septa, Fig. 13 C & D.~{Fig. 13 C & D}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. axillary bud~the bud or buds formed in the angle between the stem and the subtending (enclosing) leaf or bract.~ axis~the central stem of a plant or an inflorescence, or the elongated part of the receptacle on which floral organs are situated.~ baccate~berry-like, with fruits having the seeds embedded in pulp.~ barbed~term describing a bristle or awn with terminal or lateral backward pointing projections, each projection being a barb. Fig. 15 J.~{Fig. 15 J}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. barbellate~minutely barbed.~ basal~(1) (radical) attached or grouped at the base, e.g. of leaves in a rosette, Fig. 2 I; (2) of placentation, with the placenta at the base of the ovary, Fig. 13 H.~{Fig. 2 I}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled.#{Fig. 13 H}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. basifixed~attached at or by the base, e.g. of anthers attached by the base to the filament. Fig. 20 B. cf. dorsifixed, versatile.~{Fig. 20 B}Fig. 20. Anthers, Stamens. A, anther dorsifixed and versatile; B, anther basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal; C, cross section of anther showing loculi and regions of dehiscence; D, dehiscence by valves; E, dehiscence by apical pores; F, diadelphous stamens; G, monadelphous stamens; H, stamens with anthers fused (and with terminal appendages), filaments free. basipetal~developing, in sequence, from the apex towards the base (i.e. with the youngest towards the base); e.g. of flowers in an inflorescence. cf. acropetal.~ beak~a prominent terminal projection, especially of a carpel or fruit.~ bearded~with tufts of hairs or hair-like appendages.~ berry~a fleshy or pulpy indehiscent fruit with 1 or more seeds, the seeds embedded in the fleshy tissue of the pericarp; may be formed from either a superior or an inferior ovary. Fig. 18 D & E.~{Fig. 18 D & E}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. bi-~a prefix: in twos, as in two-; e.g. biternate = twice ternate, bipinnate = twice pinnate.~ bicarinate~2-keeled.~ biconvex~both surfaces convex.~ biennial~a herb completing the cycle from germination to fruiting in more than one, but less than two, years and then dying.~ bifacial~of leaves, flat or channelled with distinct upper and lower surfaces.~ bifid (2-fid)~divided into two parts, usually to about halfway.~ bifoliolate (2-foliolate)~of a compound leaf, with two leaflets. Fig. 3 J.~{Fig. 3 J}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. bifurcate~with 2 forks or branches.~ bilabiate~two-lipped, e.g. of a corolla in which fusion of an upper group and a lower group of petals extends beyond the top of the corolla tube.~ bilateral~arranged on opposite sides.~ bilocular (2-locular)~having two cavities, e.g. of ovary or anther.~ binate (2-nate)~in pairs.~ bipinnate (2-pinnate)~of a compound leaf, with the lamina divided twice pinnately, i.e. with the pinnae themselves divided pinnately into pinnules. Fig. 3 B.~{Fig. 3 B}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. bipinnatifid (2-pinnatifid)~of a simple leaf, with the primary lobes cut into smaller lobes (i.e. lobes pinnatifid) Fig. 5 T. cf. bipinnate.~{Fig. 5 T}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. biseriate (2-seriate)~arranged in two rows or whorls.~ bisexual~of a flower, with both stamens and carpels present and functional. cf. unisexual.~ biternate (2-ternate)~twice ternate, the 3 pinnae each divided into 3 pinnules (a total of 9 pinnules). Fig. 3 M.~{Fig. 3 M}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. blade (lamina)~an expanded portion of a leaf.~ blastotelic (indeterminate inflorescence)~an inflorescence or part of an inflorescence not ending in a flower, i.e. ending in a non-floral bud, e.g. a thyrse, raceme or spike, Fig. 17 C, H & I. cf. determinate.~{Fig. 17 C, H & I}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). bloom~the white waxy covering on some fruits, leaves or stems. See also pruinose.~ bole~the trunk of a tree below the lowest branch. cf. crown.~ boss~a protuberance.~ botryoid~a term describing an inflorescence of similar form to a botryum but ending in a flower or floral bud; includes raceme-like, spike-like, umbel-like and other variants.~ botryum~a simple inflorescence ending in a vegetative (non-floral) bud in which the main axis bears lateral flowers; includes racemes, spikes, umbels and corymbs.~ brackish~slightly salty.~ bract~usually a more or less modified leaf, especially a smaller one associated with a flower or part of an inflorescence.~ bracteate~(bracteose) with bracts.~ bracteole~bract-like structure borne singly or in pairs on the pedicel or calyx of a flower.~ branchlet~a small branch.~ bristle~a more or less straight stiff hair. Fig. 14 N. adj. bristly. cf. spine.~{Fig. 14 N}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. broom-like~with many branches parallel or almost so and usually erect, as in Spartium (Spanish broom).~ bulb~a storage organ, usually underground, composed of stem and leaf bases.~ bulbil~a small bulb formed in the axil of a leaf or bract and functioning to propagate the plant vegetatively.~ bulblet~a small bulb arising from another bulb.~ bullate~with the surface blistered or puckered. Fig. 16 F.~{Fig. 16 F}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. burr~a prickly propagule consisting of a seed or fruit and associated floral parts.~ buttress~a flange protruding from the lower part of the trunk, frequent in rainforest trees.~ C3 plants~plants that use the C3 pathway of carboxylation and do not have specialized Kranz anatomy, i.e. the majority of autotrophic plants. See also Kranz anatomy.~ C4 plants~plants that use the C4 pathway of carboxylation and have specialized Kranz anatomy. See also Kranz anatomy.~ caducous~falling early, e.g. of stipules. cf. deciduous.~ caespitose~growing in tufts.~ callosity~a thickened and hardened swelling on the surface of an organ.~ callus~(1) a small hard protrusion, e.g. on the labellum of some Orchidaceae; (2) a hard point below the lemma, in spikelets of Poaceae; (3) a protective layer of tissue formed over an injury. pl. calli.~ calyculus~the collective term for the involucral bracts (or phyllaries) surrounding a head in the Asteraceae.~ calyptra (operculum)~a cap-like covering or lid of some flowers or fruits that becomes detached at maturity by abscission; e.g. (1) the cap on the buds of eucalypts, (2) the lid of circumsciss capsules.~ calyptra scar~scar left when the calyptra has fallen away, as in eucalypt fruits.~ calyx~the sepals of one flower collectively. pl. calyces.~ calyx tube~a tube formed by the fusion of the sepals, but sometimes wrongly used in the sense of hypanthium.~ cambium~the meristem (growing region) in woody stems and fruits that forms the woody tissue.~ campanulate~bell-shaped.~ campylotropous~of an ovule, with the body bent or curved to one side so that the micropyle is near the funicle; the embryo sac is curved. Fig. 21 C. cf. anatropous, amphitropous, hemitropous, orthotropous.~{Fig. 21 C}Fig. 21. Ovules. A, orthotropous ovule; B–F, ovules in longitudinal section: B, orthotropous ovule; C, hemitropous ovule; D, campylotropous ovule; E, amphitropous ovule; F, anatropous ovule. canaliculate~with a longitudinal groove or channel.~ canescent~whitish or pale grey, usually from a covering of short fine hairs.~ canopy~(1) the branches and foliage of a tree; (2) often used as a collective term for the crowns of trees in a forest.~ capillary~slender, hair-like.~ capitate~(1) shaped like a head; (2) in a head-like cluster.~ capitulum (head)~a dense cluster of more or less sessile flowers, e.g. in Asteraceae a group of florets sessile on a common receptacle. Fig. 17 O & P.~{Fig. 17 O & P}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). capsule~a dry dehiscent fruit derived from two or more carpels. Capsules may dehisce in various ways. Fig. 18 L–P. adj. capsular.~{Fig. 18 L–P}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. carina~a keel. adj. carinate.~ carnivorous~capable of trapping and digesting animals.~ carpel~a unit of the female part of the flower (gynoecium), consisting of an ovary bearing one or more ovules, a receptive stigma, and often a stalk-like style between them. A flower can have a solitary carpel (and then the terms gynoecium and pistil are synonymous, Fig. 13 A & G) or more than one carpel. If the carpels (pistils) are free the gynoecium is apocarpous or if the carpels are fused the gynoecium (pistil) is syncarpous (or compound).~{Fig. 13 A & G}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. carpodium~a sterile female flower in which the ovary and ovule is reduced into a club-shaped structure with a short style but lacks the expanded stigma, as in Typha.~ carpophore~in a fruit, the stalk of a mericarp. Fig. 18 H.~{Fig. 18 H}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. cartilaginous~hard and tough; gristly.~ caruncle (strophile)~an appendage of a seed, near the hilum (scar). Fig. 19 D. adj. carunculate.~{Fig. 19 D}Fig. 19. Domatia, Glands etc. A, hairy domatia; B, pit domatia; C, seeds with arils; D, seeds with caruncles; E, stalked petiolar glands; F, basal lamina glands; G, marginal gland on wattle phyllode; H, bipinnate leaf with petiolar gland and jugary gland. caryopsis~a dry, indehiscent 1-seeded fruit in which the seed is fused to the wall of the fruit, as in family Poaceae. Fig. 18 S.~{Fig. 18 S}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. cataphyll~(1) a scale leaf associated with a vegetative part of a plant; (2) a leaf composed mostly of a leaf sheath or base with the lamina reduced to a minute awn, e.g. in some Juncus species.~ catkin~a dense spike-like inflorescence, usually pendulous, with minute unisexual flowers.~ caudate~bearing a narrow tail-like appendage.~ caudex~a thick, erect trunk above and/or below ground level, e.g. in cycads.~ caudicle~the stalk for a pollinium derived from the anther (as in some orchids); an elastic extension of some pollinia.~ caulescent~with a trunk.~ cauliflory~the production of flowers or fruits on well-developed trunks or major branches. adj. cauliflorous. cf. ramiflory.~ cauline~borne on the more or less elongated aerial portion of a stem, e.g. describing leaves. cf. radical.~ cell~the basic unit of plant structure consisting, at least when young, of a protoplast surrounded by a wall.~ centrifixed~of a two-branched organ attached by its centre, e.g. a hair.~ centrifugal~directed, or developing, from the centre or axis outwards. cf. centripetal.~ centripetal~directed, or developing, from the outside towards the centre or axis. cf. centrifugal.~ chaff~(1) membranous scales or bracts; (2) thin dry unfertilized ovules among the fully developed seeds of a fruit, as in many eucalypts.~ chalaza~the part of an ovule to which the end of the stalk (funicle) is attached. Fig. 21. adj. chalazal.~{Fig. 21}Fig. 21. Ovules. A, orthotropous ovule; B–F, ovules in longitudinal section: B, orthotropous ovule; C, hemitropous ovule; D, campylotropous ovule; E, amphitropous ovule; F, anatropous ovule. channelled~with edges curved round (like a gutter).~ character~any feature of an organism or taxonomic group that can be measured, counted or otherwise assessed.~ chartaceous~papery, opaque and thin.~ chasmogamous~of flowers that are pollinated while open. cf. cleistogamous.~ chlorophyll~pigment(s) constituting the green colouring matter in plants and absorbing radiant energy in photosynthesis.~ chromosome~a thread-like structure in the nucleus of a cell, containing a linear sequence of genes.~ cilia~hairs more or less confined to the margins of an organ. sing. cilium. adj. ciliate.~ ciliate~having the margin fringed with hairs, resembling an eyelash. Fig. 14 I. cf. fimbriate.~{Fig. 14 I}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. ciliolate~having the margin minutely fringed.~ cincinnus~a tight, modified helicoid cyme with short pedicels on the developed side.~ circinate (circinnate)~spirally coiled with the tip innermost as in the young fronds of many ferns. Fig. 11 A.~{Fig. 11 A}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. circular (orbiculate)~a 2-dimensional shape with length and breadth more or less equal. Fig. 5 E.~{Fig. 5 E}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. circumsciss (circumscissile)~breaking open along a transverse line so that the top (calyptra) comes off like a lid, as in some capsules. Fig. 18 O.~{Fig. 18 O}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. cladode~a photosynthetic stem whose foliage leaves are usually reduced or absent.~ clasping~surrounding or embracing, e.g. stem-clasping, of a lamina surrounding the stem.~ class~a major taxonomic rank, between order and division.~ classification~the establishing and defining of systematic groups; the assignment of organisms (plants) to groups within a system or hierarchy or ranks or categories. cf. systematics, taxonomy.~ clathrate~latticed.~ clavate~club-shaped.~ claw~a narrow, stalk-like basal portion of a petal, sepal or bract. cf. limb.~ cleistogamous~of flowers that remain closed and are self-pollinating and set fertile seed. cf. chasmogamous.~ cleistogene~specialized florets produced at the base of some grasses in the leaf sheaths. These modified florets produce fertile diaspores without opening and they are different in appearance and structure from those in the inflorescence.~ cline~continuous morphological variation in form within a species, or sometimes, between two species. adj. clinal.~ clone~genetically identical organisms produced from a single parent by vegetative reproduction , or by development of ovules without fertilization.~ closed forest (rainforest)~a forest dominated by broad-leaved trees with dense crowns that form a continuous layer (canopy) and with one or more of the following growth forms.~ club~of orchids (family Orchidaceae) when perianth segment swollen apically and that portion often covered in glands or glandular hairs.~ cluster bract~a bract subtending a cluster of flowers.~ coalesced~with like or unlike parts or organs partially fused in a more or less irregular fashion. cf. adhesion, adnate, cohesion, connate.~ cobwebbed~covered with long weak, loosely entangled hairs, resembling a spiderweb; usually whitish. adj. cobwebby.~ coccus~one of the segments (usually 1-seeded) of a distinctly lobed fruit which becomes separated at maturity; sometimes called a mericarp. Fig. 18 H & P. pl. cocci.~{Fig. 18 H & P}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. cohesion~the sticking together of two or more similar parts that are not organically fused. adj. coherent. cf. adhesion.~ collateral~situated side by side; adjacent and on the same radius of an axis.~ colliculate~of a surface, rough with low rounded protuberances. Fig. 16 A.~{Fig. 16 A}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. columella~the persistent central axis in some fruits and cones.~ column~(1) (gynostemium) a structure formed by the union of stamens, style and stigmas, as in Orchidaceae, Asclepiadaceae and Stylidiaceae; (2) the lower part of an awn in grasses, when different in form from the upper part.~ coma~a tuft of hairs, especially on a seed or fruit.~ community~an assemblage of plants that naturally occur together.~ complicate~folded together.~ compound~composed of several more or less similar parts, as opposed to simple; e.g. of an ovary formed from several united carpels or of a leaf divided into leaflets. Fig. 3 A–F, I–M.~{Fig. 3 A–F, I–M}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. compressed~flattened in one plane, either dorsally (bringing the front and back closer together) or laterally (bringing the sides closer together).~ concavo-convex~concave on one side and convex on the other.~ concolorous~with the same colour throughout or on both surfaces. cf. discolorous.~ conduplicate~folded flat together lengthwise, e.g. as in aestivation. Fig. 11 C.~{Fig. 11 C}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. cone~(1) a group of sporophylls arranged tightly on a central axis, as in cycads and conifers~ conflorescence~a branch system bearing flowers in which the main axis bears uniflorescences, but is itself qualitatively different in structure from the uniflorescences.~ confluent~merging or blending together.~ conical~cone-shaped, with the broad end at the base.~ connate~fusion of similar parts, e.g. petals into a corolla tube. cf. adnate.~ connivent~coming into contact or converging.~ connective~the sterile part of an anther connecting the loculi.~ conspecific~belonging to one and the same species.~ contiguous~touching but not fused, adherent, or coherent.~ contorted~twisted; a form of imbricate aestivation in which each segment has one edge overlapping the next segment. Fig. 11 E.~{Fig. 11 E}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. contraligule~a tongue-shaped structure produced at the apex of the leaf sheath opposite the blade in Scleria.~ convolute~rolled with margins overlapping. Fig. 11 D.~{Fig. 11 D}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. coppice shoot~a shoot developed from a dormant bud in the trunk or larger branches of a tree, the leaves on such a shoot often differ from the adult leaves and are called juvenile leaves (similar to sapling leaves); a common feature of many eucalypts and rainforest trees. Coppiceshoots usually develop after damage to the trunk by fire, cutting etc. Fig. 1 G.~{Fig. 1 G}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. cordate~of a leaf or leaf base, heart-shaped with a basal notch. Fig. 7 F.~{Fig. 7 F}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. coriaceous~leathery.~ corm~a short, broad, fleshy, subterranean stem which produces aerial stems, leaves and flowers and in which food reserves are stored.~ corolla~the petals of a flower collectively, frequently brightly coloured or white.~ corona~any ring of tissue or appendage that stands between the perianth and the stamens, or on the perianth. e.g. as in Passiflora species.~ cortex~the region of a stem or root surrounding the vascular cylinder but inside the epidermis.~ corymb~an inflorescence (without a terminal flower) in which all the flowers are at the same level even though the pedicels arise at different levels. Fig. 17 K.~{Fig. 17 K}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). costa~a rib. adj. costate.~ cotyledon~the first leaf or leaves of the embryo, present in the seed.~ coumarin~a carbohydrate with a strong smell, as in some seeds and leaves.~ crenate~of a margin, with shallow, rounded teeth. Fig. 8 B.~{Fig. 8 B}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. crenulate~finely crenate.~ crested~with a terminal ridge or tuft.~ crisped~very strongly, and usually finely, wavy. Fig. 8 I. cf. undulate.~{Fig. 8 I}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. crown~the part of a tree or shrub above the level of the lowest branch.~ crustaceous~hard, thin and brittle.~ cryptogam~a plant whose sexual reproductive parts are not conspicuous; a plant that produces spores, not seeds, in its sexual reproductive cycle, e.g. ferns, mosses, algae. cf. phanerogam.~ cuboid~cube-like; a 3-dimensional shape.~ cucullate~hooded.~ culm~an aerial stem bearing the inflorescence, in grasses, rushes etc.~ cultivar~cultivated variety, a variety developed in cultivation. An assemblage of cultivated individuals distinguished by any characters significant for the purposes of agriculture, forestry or horticulture, and which, when reproduced retains its distinguishing features.~ cuneate~wedge-shaped, e.g. of a leaf or leaf base. Fig. 7 B.~{Fig. 7 B}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. cupule~a small cup. adj. cupular.~ cupuliform~cup-shaped.~ cusp~sharp, rigid point.~ cuspidate~tapering into a sharp rigid point.~ cyathium~an inflorescence of reduced unisexual flowers surrounded by involucral bracts, e.g. in Euphorbia species. Fig. 17 R.~{Fig. 17 R}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). cylindric~tubular or rod-shaped.~ cyme~an inflorescence in which the main axis ends in a flower and further growth of the inflorescence is by one or more branches which themselves end in a flower (the main and lateral branches may bear bracteoles but have no bracts, leaves or nodes). adj. cymose. e.g. dichasium, monochasium. Fig. 17 D & E.~{Fig. 17 D & E}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). cymule~a small dichasium.~ cypsela (an achene)~the fruit formed in most Asteraceae; a dry indehiscent 1-seeded fruit formed from inferior ovary of 1 carpel, with the seed not fused to the fruit wall and usually topped by the pappus. Fig. 18 R.~{Fig. 18 R}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. cystoliths~mineral concretions, usually of calcium carbonate on a cellulose stalk, chiefly occurring in specialized hairs in some Urticaceae and Cannabaceae and in Acanthaceae; often appearing as tubercle-based hairs. Fig. 15 B.~{Fig. 15 B}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. deciduous~(1) falling seasonally, e.g. of the leaves and bark of some trees, cf. caducous; (2) a plant losing its leaves for part of the year, cf. evergreen.~ decompound~several times divided, compounded, e.g. of inflorescences where the order of branching is more than just the once compound.~ decorticating~with bark peeling off.~ decumbent~spreading horizontally with the ends growing upwards. Fig. 1 J.~{Fig. 1 J}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. decurrent~extending downwards beyond the point of insertion, e.g. of a petiole extending down the stem as a ridge. Fig. 4 C.~{Fig. 4 C}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules. decurved~bent downwards and curved. cf. deflexed.~ decussate~in pairs, with successive pairs borne at right angles to each other. Fig. 2 D.~{Fig. 2 D}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. definite~of a constant number; e.g. twice as many stamens as the petals or sepals (or less), or an inflorescence ending in a flower or an aborted floral bud. cf. indefinite.~ deflexed~bent sharply downwards. cf. reflexed, decurved.~ dehiscent~opening at maturity to release the contents, e.g. of a fruit, anther etc.~ deltate~a 2-dimensional triangular shape.~ deltoid~triangular, but a 3-dimensional solid.~ dendritic~much branched, like the crown of a tree, e.g. of hairs. Fig. 15 F.~{Fig. 15 F}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. dendroid~tree-like in form but not in size. cf. arborescent.~ dentate~toothed with rounded or sharp course teeth.~ denticulate~finely toothed.~ depauperate~impoverished.~ depressed~flattened as if pressed down from the top or end, especially of 3 dimensional shapes.~ determinate~(1) of growth or branching, with a bud or flower terminating the main axis; (2) of an inflorescence (= anthotelic), with the inflorescence or parts of the inflorescence ending in a flower or an aborted but distinctly floral bud, e.g. panicle, thyrsoid, dichasium, monochasium, Fig. 17 A, B, D & E. cf. indeterminate.~{Fig. 17 A, B, D & E}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). diadelphous~having the stamens united by their filaments into two groups, as in Fabaceae subfamily Faboideae. Fig. 20 F. cf. monadelphous.~{Fig. 20 F}Fig. 20. Anthers, Stamens. A, anther dorsifixed and versatile; B, anther basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal; C, cross section of anther showing loculi and regions of dehiscence; D, dehiscence by valves; E, dehiscence by apical pores; F, diadelphous stamens; G, monadelphous stamens; H, stamens with anthers fused (and with terminal appendages), filaments free. diagnosis~a detailed description.~ diaspore~the dispersal unit containing the results of sexual reproduction and including non-floral parts (if any)~ dichasium~a cyme in which branches appear in regular opposite pairs. Fig. 17 D. cf. monochasium.~{Fig. 17 D}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). dichlamydeous~of a flower, having two whorls of perianth parts, a distinct calyx and corolla. cf. monochlamydeous.~ dichotomous~divided into two equal forks, e.g. of the branching pattern of stems or veins. Fig. 9 G.~{Fig. 9 G}Fig. 9. Venation Patterns. A, pinnate; B, 3-veined from base; C, palmate; D, leaves palmately veined, lobes pinnately veined; E, longitudinal; F, parallel; G, dichotomous; H, reticulate; I, areolate. dicotyledons~a major group of angiosperms (flowering plants) characterized by the embryo usually having two (rarely more) cotyledons (seed leaves). cf. monocotyledons.~ didymous~with stamens in 2 equal pairs.~ didynamous~in 2 pairs of unequal length.~ digitate (palmate)~of a compound leaf with 3 or more leaflets arising from one point at top of petiole, Fig. 3 E.~{Fig. 3 E}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. dimorphic~occurring in two different forms.~ dioecious~with male and female flowers on different plants. cf. monoecious.~ diploid~having two lots of the basic set of chromosomes in the nucleus. cf. haploid, polyploid.~ disarticulate~to separate at a joint.~ disc~an outgrowth of tissue from the receptacle in the form of a ring or plate, sometimes divided into lobes or separate bodies, occurring between whorls of floral parts; generally glandular.~ disc floret (disc flower)~usually an actinomorphic flower produced in the central part of the head and with a tubular corolla with more or less equal lobes, as in most Asteraceae. cf. ray floret.~ discoid~(1) disc-shaped, flat and circular; (2) having only disc florets.~ discolorous~coloured differently on the two surfaces. cf. concolorous.~ disjunct-opposite~a variant of opposite and decussate leaf arrangement in which during development the leaves of a pair become separated on the axis owing to elongation of the nodal region, often giving the appearance of ‘alternate’ leaf arrangement but distinguished by decussate, not spiral, sequence.~ dissected~divided at least partially into segments.~ distal~towards the free end or apex, away from the point of attachment.~ distichous (2-ranked)~arranged in two rows on opposite sides of a stem and in the same plane. Fig. 2 B.~{Fig. 2 B}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. distinct~separate, free.~ diurnal~of flowers, opening only during daylight hours. cf. nocturnal.~ divaricate~broadly spreading, more or less horizontal. Fig. 1 E.~{Fig. 1 E}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. division~the major taxonomic rank within the plant kingdom (in which the phylum is no longer generally recognised). cf. phylum~ domatia~small structures on the lower surface of some leaves, usually consisting of depressions, partly enclosed by leaf tissue or hairs, usually located in the axils of the primary and secondary veins. Fig. 19 A & B.~{Fig. 19 A & B}Fig. 19. Domatia, Glands etc. A, hairy domatia; B, pit domatia; C, seeds with arils; D, seeds with caruncles; E, stalked petiolar glands; F, basal lamina glands; G, marginal gland on wattle phyllode; H, bipinnate leaf with petiolar gland and jugary gland. dorsal (abaxial)~relating to the back of an organ, i.e. the surface of a lateral organ facing away from the axis. cf. ventral.~ dorsifixed~attached at or by the back. cf. basifixed, versatile.~ dorsiventral~term describing leaves in which the upper and lower surfaces differ from each other in texture, presence of hairs, stomates etc. cf. isobilateral.~ doubly toothed~with smaller regular teeth on the margins of larger teeth, as in some Prunus species. Fig. 8 D.~{Fig. 8 D}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. drupaceous~term describing a fruit which is a drupe or drupe-like.~ drupe~an indehiscent succulent fruit derived from a single carpel in which the pericarp consists of three layers~ drupelet~one drupe of a mature fruit composed of a cluster of small drupes, as in blackberries, the ‘seed’ being a pyrene. Fig. 18 X.~{Fig. 18 X}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. dry sclerophyll forest~an open forest in which scleromorphic (hard-leaved) shrubs form a layer below the trees (usually species of eucalypts). cf. wet sclerophyll forest.~ duplicate~folded twice.~ dyad~in twos, a pair.~ ebracteate~without bracts.~ echinate~spiny; bearing stiff, stout, prickly hairs.~ ecotype~a plant or group of plants exhibiting certain characteristics of growth or flowering in response to particular environmental conditions.~ edaphic~pertaining to the soil.~ eglandular~without glands.~ elaiosome~an oil body on some seeds; a feature of some seeds dispersed by ants.~ ellipsoid~the 3-dimensional equivalent of elliptic.~ elliptic~a 2-dimensional shape, oval in outline, broadest about the middle. Fig. 5 D.~{Fig. 5 D}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. elongate~lengthened; stretched out.~ emarginate~having a broad shallow notch at the apex. Fig. 6 G.~{Fig. 6 G}Fig. 6. Leaf Apices. A, subulate; B, aristate; C, acuminate; D, acute; E, obtuse; F, truncate; G, emarginate; H, retuse; I, obcordate; J, hooked; K, mucronate. embryo~the rudimentary plant present in a mature seed or within the archegonium after fertilization and some development.~ embryo sac~the female gametophyte, produced within the ovule. Fig. 21.~{Fig. 21}Fig. 21. Ovules. A, orthotropous ovule; B–F, ovules in longitudinal section: B, orthotropous ovule; C, hemitropous ovule; D, campylotropous ovule; E, amphitropous ovule; F, anatropous ovule. emergent~of a plant, (1) rising above the surrounding plants, e.g. of a tree above the rainforest canopy; (2) rising above the surface of the water.~ enation~epidermal outgrowth, projection.~ endemic~having a natural distribution confined to a particular geographic region. cf. native.~ endocarp~the innermost layer of the pericarp. cf. exocarp.~ endosperm~nutritive tissue within the seed, usually surrounding the embryo or to one side of it, and formed within the embryo sac (in angiosperms a product of accessory fertilization). cf. perisperm.~ entire~of a margin, neither dissected nor toothed. Fig. 8 A.~{Fig. 8 A}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. entomophilous~pollinated by insects.~ ephemeral~short-lived annual.~ epi-~a prefix: upon, as in epipetalous = borne on the petals.~ epicalyx~a whorl of bracts just below the flower, resembling an extra calyx.~ epicarp~the outermost layer of the pericarp.~ epicormic~term describing buds, shoots or flowers borne on the old wood of trees, often applied to shoots arising from dormant buds after injury or fire, as in eucalypts.~ epidermis~the outer layer of cells of an organ.~ epigeal~of germination, having the cotyledon(s) emerging from the seed coat and becoming photosynthetic. cf. hypogeal.~ epigynous~of floral parts, especially stamens, inserted on or above the ovary, and arising from tissue that is fused to the ovary wall. Fig. 12 B. cf. hypogynous, perigynous.~{Fig. 12 B}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped. epilithic~of plants growing on rocks, e.g. some orchids.~ epimatium~the ovule-bearing scale in some conifers, as in Podocarpus species.~ epipeltate~of an anther that is dorsifixed (peltate) and in which the part of the anther that is prolonged downwards beyond the attachment point of the filament faces inwards in relation to the centre of the flower. cf. hypopeltate.~ epipetalous~borne on the petals.~ epiphyllous~growing on leaves, as plantlets on the leaves in some Crassulaceae.~ epiphyte~a plant perched, but not parasitic, on another plant. Fig. 1 I. cf. lithophyte.~{Fig. 1 I}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. episepalous~of stamens, borne on the sepals.~ equitant~of leaves, folded longitudinally with the two inner surfaces (representing the upper leaf surface) fused except towards the base where it clasps another leaf on the opposite side of the stem; one margin represents the leaf keel and the lamina is vertically orientated; as in Iris. Leaf arrangement, Fig. 2 E; cross section through equitant arrangement Fig. 11 B.~{Fig. 2 E}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled.#{Fig. 11 B}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. erect~(1) upright, e.g. of a shrub, Fig. 1 A; (2) perpendicular to a surface, e.g. of hairs.~{Fig. 1 A}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. eremean~pertaining to regions of low, irregular rainfall.~ ericoid~of leaves, small and sharply pointed like those of the heaths.~ erose~of margins, irregular as if nibbled. Fig. 8 E.~{Fig. 8 E}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. espatheate~without spathes.~ eusporangiate~of ferns, having sporangia with walls more than one cell thick, originating from a group of cells. cf. leptosporangiate.~ evergreen~a plant bearing leaves throughout the year. cf. deciduous.~ ex-~a prefix: without, e.g. exstipulate, without stipules.~ excentric~not centrally placed, without a fixed centre.~ excurrent~running through to the apex and beyond as a mucro, e.g. of the midvein in a leaf.~ exine~the outer layer of a pollen grain or spore.~ exocarp~the combined epicarp and mesocarp of a fruit. cf. endocarp.~ exotic~introduced from outside the area concerned, in the case of N.S.W. usually from overseas.~ exserted~projecting beyond the surrounding objects, e.g. of stamens protruding beyond the perianth, or of valves projecting beyond the rim of a capsular fruit. cf. included.~ exstipulate~without stipules.~ extrafloral~not within the flower, usually applied to nectariferous glands, e.g. as those on the petiole in some Croton species and on the phyllodes of some wattles. Fig. 19 E–H.~{Fig. 19 E–H}Fig. 19. Domatia, Glands etc. A, hairy domatia; B, pit domatia; C, seeds with arils; D, seeds with caruncles; E, stalked petiolar glands; F, basal lamina glands; G, marginal gland on wattle phyllode; H, bipinnate leaf with petiolar gland and jugary gland. extravaginal~of a tiller that grows by breaking through the subtending leaf sheath as it grows. cf. intravaginal.~ extrorse~of stamens, dehiscing towards the outside of the flower. cf. introrse, latrorse.~ f.~an abbreviation for (1) forma if preceding a taxon epithet, or (2) filius (son of) if following the author of the taxon (e.g. L.f. – son of Linnaeus).~ facultative~of parasites, optional, cf. obligate.~ falcate~sickle-shaped, e.g. of a leaf. Fig. 5 N.~{Fig. 5 N}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. family~a group of one or more genera believed to be related. cf. genus.~ farina~a fine mealy powder on the surface of some plants.~ fasciated~unnaturally and often monstrously connate or adnate, the coalesced parts often grossly proliferated in size and/or number; e.g. inflorescence of Celosia.~ fascicled~arranged in bundles or clusters, e.g. leaves. Fig. 2 J.~{Fig. 2 J}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. feldmark~high altitude plant community characterized by scattered, dwarf prostrate plants with a mat or cushion habit.~ felted~matted with very short interlocked hairs, having the appearance or texture of felt. Fig. 14 D. cf. tomentose.~{Fig. 14 D}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. fenestrate~windowed or provided with openings.~ ferruginous~rusty, rust-coloured.~ fertile~capable of reproducing itself; also used of portions of a plant or organ producing reproductive structures.~ fertilization~the union of female and male gametes.~ fibre~(1) a thread or thread-like body; (2) a long slender, thick-walled cell as in sclerenchyma tissue.~ -fid~a suffix: divided to about half-way, e.g. 2-fid, 3-fid, bi-fid, tri-fid.~ filament~(1) any thread-like body; (2) the stalk of a stamen.~ filiform~thread-like. Fig. 5 A.~{Fig. 5 A}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. filius~(Latin) son, abbreviated to f.~ fimbriate~having the margin fringed with long hair-like processes. Fig. 14 J. cf. ciliate.~{Fig. 14 J}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. fistula~the opening of a hollow leaf-base; through which the stem emerges.~ flaccid~limp; tending to wilt. cf. turgid.~ flexuous (flexuose)~bent from side to side in one plane in zigzag form.~ floccose~covered with soft woolly hairs which are entangled and tend to rub off.~ flora~(1) the assemblage of plant taxa of an area; (2) a book dealing systematically with the plants of an area.~ floral~belonging to or associated with a flower.~ floral tube~see hypanthium.~ floret~(1) a small flower, one of a spikelet or dense cluster, as in Asteraceae; (2) a grass flower, together with the lemma and palea that enclose it.~ flower~the sexual reproductive structure of angiosperms, typically consisting of an axis bearing perianth parts, androecium and gynoecium. Fig. 12.~{Fig. 12}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped. foliaceous~leaf-like.~ -foliate~a suffix: number of leaves, as in bifoliate = with 2 leaves.~ -foliolate~an adjective used with a number prefix to indicate the number of leaflets forming a compound leaf, e.g. bifoliolate, a leaf with 2 leaflets.~ follicle~a dry fruit derived from a single carpel and opening along one suture. Fig. 18 F & G.~{Fig. 18 F & G}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. forb~a non-woody plant other than a grass, sedge, rush, etc. cf. herb.~ forest~a plant community dominated by long-boled trees in close proximity. cf. woodland.~ form (forma, Latin)~the smallest taxonomic category, generally used for variations occurring among individuals of any population; sometimes abbreviated to f.~ fovea~a pit. adj. foveate.~ foveola~a small pit. adj. foveolate.~ free~not united with any other organ.~ free-central~of placentation, with the placenta along the central axis in a compound ovary without septa. Fig. 13 E & F.~{Fig. 13 E & F}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. frond~the leaf of a fern or cycad; sometimes used for a large compound leaf as in palms.~ fruit~the seed-bearing structure in angiosperms, formed from the ovary after flowering. Fig. 18.~{Fig. 18}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. funicle~the stalk of the ovule.~ fused~joined and growing together.~ fusiform~spindle-shaped, i.e. narrower at both ends than at the middle.~ galea~in Orchidaceae, a perianth segment or group of perianth segments shaped like a helmet.~ gamete~a reproductive cell; a cell or nucleus that fuses with another in sexual reproduction.~ gametophyte~the body that bears gametes; produced by the germinating spore. cf. prothallus.~ gamopetalous (= sympetalous)~with petals united by their margins, at least at the base. cf. polypetalous.~ gamophyllous~having the bases of opposite leaves fused around the stem. Fig. 4 E.~{Fig. 4 E}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules. gamosepalous~having the sepals united by their margins, at least at the base.~ genes~the total complement of hereditary factors contained within an organism: the unit of inheritance.~ geniculate~bent like a knee.~ genotype~the total complement of hereditary factors (genes) acquired by an organism from its parents and available for transmisssion to its offspring. cf. phenotype.~ genus~a taxonomic group of closely related species or a single species without close relatives; closely related genera are grouped into families. pl. genera.~ geophyte~a plant with an underground storage organ (e.g. corm, tuber, bulb or rhizome) and with annually renewed aerial shoots.~ gibbous~humped, swollen on one side.~ glabrate~glabrous, but obviously having previously had an indumentum.~ glabrescent~becoming glabrous.~ glabrous~without hairs or scales.~ gland~a structure, within or on the surface of a plant, with a secretory function; e.g. surface glands (Fig. 16 E), petiolar or lamina glands (Fig. 19 E–H).~{Fig. 16 E}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate.#{Fig. 19 E–H}Fig. 19. Domatia, Glands etc. A, hairy domatia; B, pit domatia; C, seeds with arils; D, seeds with caruncles; E, stalked petiolar glands; F, basal lamina glands; G, marginal gland on wattle phyllode; H, bipinnate leaf with petiolar gland and jugary gland. glandular~having glands, e.g. of hairs (Fig. 15 C), of a surface (Fig. 16 E).~{Fig. 15 C}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair.#{Fig. 16 E}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. glaucous~dull blue-green in colour, with a whitish bloom which can often be rubbed off; sometimes characteristic of young leaves, as in some eucalypts. cf. pruinose.~ globose (globular, orbicular, spherical)~a 3-dimensional shape, ball-shaped, more or less circular in outline.~ glochid~a barbed bristle, as in many Cactaceae.~ glomerule~a small compact cluster, e.g. of flowers.~ glumaceous~having the nature of or resembling a glume, tending to be chaffy or membranous in texture.~ glume~a bract in the inflorescence of some monocots; (1) one of the two bracts at the base of the grass spikelet; (2) also used in Cyperaceae and Restionaceae for the small bracts on the spikelet in which flower is subtended.~ glutinous~sticky.~ grain~the fruit of grasses, see caryopsis.~ granular~of a surface, finely mealy, covered with small granules.~ grass~a plant belonging to the family Poaceae.~ grassland~low vegetation dominated by grasses.~ gymnosperms~plants, such as conifers and cycads, whose seeds are naked, the ovules not being enclosed in an ovary.~ gynaecandrous~inflorescence with female flowers above male flowers, as in the spikes of some species of Carex.~ gynobasic~of a style, arising near the base of the gynoecium between the lobes of the ovary.~ gynodioecious~of plants, having female flowers and bisexual flowers on separate plants. cf. androdioecious, andromonoecious, dioecious, monoecious, polygamodioecious, polygamomonoecious, polygamous.~ gynoecium~the carpel (if solitary) or carpels of a flower collectively; the female part of the flower. cf. androecium.~ gynomonoecious~of plants, having bisexual and female flowers on the same plant. cf. androdioecious, andromonoecious, dioecious, gynodioecious, monoecious, polygamodioecious, polygamomonoecious, polygamous.~ gynophore~the stalk of a superior ovary. cf. androgynophore.~ gynostemium~see column.~ habit~the general appearance of a plant, including size, shape and growth form. Fig. 1.~{Fig. 1}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. habitat~the kind of place in which a plant grows.~ hair~an outgrowth of the epidermis, usually elongate and consisting of one or more cells. Figs. 14 & 15.~{Fig. 14}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines.#{Fig. 15}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. half-inferior~of an ovary, partly below and partly above the level of attachment of the perianth and stamens. Fig. 12 C.~{Fig. 12 C}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped. halophyte~a plant adapted to living in a highly saline area; a plant that accumulates a high concentration of salt in its tissues.~ hamulus~on column of orchid, thread of tissue between pollen-mass and viscid disk on upper part of stigma (rostellum).~ haploid~having a single set of chromosomes in the nucleus. cf. diploid, polyploid.~ hastate~spear-shaped; of a leaf, with a narrow, pointed lamina with two basal lobes spreading more or less at right angles to the petiole. Fig. 7 I.~{Fig. 7 I}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. haustorium~the absorbing organ of some parasitic or hemiparasitic plants through which substances pass from the host to the parasite.~ head (capitulum)~a dense cluster of more or less sessile flowers, e.g. in Asteraceae a group of florets sessile on a common receptacle. Fig. 17 O & P.~{Fig. 17 O & P}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). heath~(1) a plant community dominated by small, closely spaced shrubs, most of which have stiff and often small leaves; (2) a plant with small hard leaves, as in many Ericaceae subfamily Styphelioideae.~ hemi-~prefix: half.~ hemiantropous~see hemitropous.~ hemiparasite~an organism that is partly parasitic on another organism, e.g. mistletoes.~ hemispherical~semiglobose.~ hemitropous~of an ovule with the body at right angles to the funicle, with the funicle attached near the middle and the micropyle terminal; embryo sac straight. Fig. 21 C. cf. anatropous, amphitropous, campylotropous, orthotropous.~{Fig. 21 C}Fig. 21. Ovules. A, orthotropous ovule; B–F, ovules in longitudinal section: B, orthotropous ovule; C, hemitropous ovule; D, campylotropous ovule; E, amphitropous ovule; F, anatropous ovule. herb~a plant that does not produce a woody stem, although it may be woody at the base. adj. herbaceous. cf. forb.~ herbaceous~herb-like, not woody; often applied to bracts, bracteoles or floral parts that are green and soft in texture.~ hermaphrodite~of a plant with all flowers bisexual.~ hesperidium~fleshy indehiscent fruit derived from a single gynoecium, with an outer leathery rind and septate interior (e.g. Citrus).~ heterogamous~producing flowers of 2 or more kinds with respect to their fertile organs, i.e. combination of male, female or bisexual. cf. homogamous.~ heterogeneous~consisting of dissimilar parts.~ heteromorphic~of two or more forms.~ heterosporous~a plant producing spores of two different kinds in the sexual reproductive cycle. See megaspore, microspore. cf. homosporous.~ heterostylous~flowers with styles of different lengths, sizes or shapes in the same species. cf. homostylous.~ hilum~the scar on the seed coat where the seed was attached to the funicle.~ hip~the false aggregate ‘fruit’ in Rosa species. Fig. 18 V.~{Fig. 18 V}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. hirsute~bearing coarse, moderately stiff, longish hairs. Fig. 14 L.~{Fig. 14 L}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. hispid~bristly. See bristle.~ hispidulous~minutely bristly.~ hoary~with a dense covering of hairs so that the surface appears whitish or greyish.~ holotype~a single specimen chosen by the author of a plant (or animal) name, at the time of original publication, as that to which the name shall apply; the ‘voucher specimen’ of a name. cf. lectotype which is chosen by a later author.~ homosporous~producing only one kind of spore in the sexual reproductive cycle, and hence each with gametophyte producing both male and female gametes. cf. heterosporous.~ homostylous~flowers with styles of similar length, size and shape in the same species. cf. heterostylous.~ host~an organism on which a parasite lives and by which it is nourished; also applied to a plant supporting an epiphyte.~ hyaline~translucent.~ hybrid~the offspring of genetically different parents (in a flora, usually applied where the parents are of different species).~ hybrid swarm~a variable population resulting from crossing and segregation amongst the offspring of a hybrid or hybrids, including one or both of the parent taxa.~ hydrophyte~a plant growing submerged in water, sometimes partly emergent.~ hygroscopic~capable of expanding or contracting in response to presence or absence of water or atmospheric moisture.~ hypanthium~a cup-like or tubular structure formed above the base, and often above the top, of the ovary with the stamens and perianth parts inserted on the rim. e.g. as in Onagraceae and some Myrtaceae. Fig. 12 D.~{Fig. 12 D}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped. hypocotyl~the part of the stem of an embryo or young seedling below the cotyledonary node.~ hypodermis~a layer of cells below the epidermis.~ hypogynous~inserted below the level of the ovary, e.g. of sepals, petals and stamens. Fig. 12 A. cf. perigynous, epigynous.~{Fig. 12 A}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped. hypogeal~of germination, having the cotyledon(s) remaining within the seed coat. cf. epigeal.~ hypopeltate~of an anther that is dorsifixed (or peltate) and in which the part of the anther that is prolonged downwards beyond the attachment point of the filament faces outwards in relation to the centre of the flower. cf. epipeltate.~ hypostomatic~leaves with stomates on one surface only; usually on the lower surface. cf. amphistomatic.~ imbricate~(1) of perianth parts, having their edges overlapping in the bud, see aestivation, Fig. 11 F; (2) of leaves, closely packed and overlapping, Fig. 2 H.~{Fig. 11 F}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate.#{Fig. 2 H}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. imparipinnate~term describing a pinnate leaf with a single terminal leaflet, and therefore usually with an odd number of leaflets. Fig. 3 C. cf. paripinnate.~{Fig. 3 C}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. in~in nomenclature, where the preceding author published the name in an article or book, authored or edited by the succeeding author.~ incised~cut deeply, sharply and often irregularly (an intermediate condition between toothed and lobed).~ inclined~orientated at an angle of 45-80°.~ included~enclosed, not protruding, e.g. of stamens not projecting beyond the perianth or of valves which do not extend beyond the rim of a capsular fruit. cf. exserted.~ incumbent~resting or lying upon.~ incurved~of leaf margins, curved inwards or upwards. Fig. 10 B. cf. recurved, involute.~{Fig. 10 B}Fig. 10. Leaves and Margins in Cross Section. A, plano-convex; B, incurved; C, involute; D, recurved; E, revolute; F, trigonous; G, triquetrous; H, terete. indefinite~variable in number; numerous; of an inflorescence, not terminating in a flower.~ indehiscent~not opening at maturity to release seed or pollen.~ indeterminate~(1) term describing growth or branching in which the terminal bud persists and produces successive lateral branches; (2) of an inflorescence of part of an inflorescence (=blastotelic), not ending in a flower, i.e. ending in a non-floral bud, e.g. a thyrse, raceme or spike, Fig. 17 C, H & I. cf. determinate.~{Fig. 17 C, H & I}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). indigenous~native to the area; not introduced. cf. endemic.~ indumentum~a general term for the hairy or scaly covering of plants.~ induplicate~of perianth parts, having their edges folded inwards in bud, but without overlapping, see aestivation. Fig. 11 H.~{Fig. 11 H}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. indurated~hardened.~ indusium~(1) the tissue covering the sorus of a fern; (2) the pollen-cup of the style of some Goodeniaceae.~ inferior ovary~an ovary below the level of attachment of the perianth parts and stamens and completely fused with the hypanthium or at most with a free summit (Fig. 12 B); if less fused see half-inferior (Fig. 12 C). The floral parts of a flower with such an ovary are said to be epigynous.~{Fig. 12 B}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped.#{Fig. 12 C}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped. inflated~swollen; like a bladder.~ inflexed~bent inwards.~ inflorescence~a general term for the flower-bearing system of a plant, and more particularly for portions of such systems separated from one another by vegetative portions of the plant. Fig. 17.~{Fig. 17}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). infraspecific~of taxa, below the level of species~ infructescence~the inflorescence in the fruiting stage; the arrangement of fruits, including peduncle, pedicels, bracts and fruit.~ inrolled~rolled inwards; see revolute, involute.~ insectivorous~trapping and feeding on insects and, by extension, other small invertebrates.~ inserted (on)~attached to; arising from.~ integument~a covering; one of the outer layers of tissue of an ovule.~ inter-~a prefix: between, as in interpetiolar stipule, a stipule between the petioles.~ intercalary~of a meristem (growing region), situated between regions of permanent tissue, e.g. at the base of nodes and leaves in many monocotyledons.~ intercotyledonary inclusion~group of cells or particles between cotyledons.~ interfertile~able to interbreed.~ intergeneric~between genera, e.g. hybridization.~ interjugary~of glands, present on the rachises of bipinnate leaves between the junction of pairs of pinnae or of pinnules. as in some Acacia species. cf. jugary.~ intermediate leaves~leaves that develop after the juvenile and before the mature leaves in plants which have dimorphic or trimorphic foliage.~ internode~the portion of the stem between two successive nodes.~ interpetiolar~of stipules, between the petiole bases of two opposite leaves. Fig. 4 J.~{Fig. 4 J}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules. interrupted inflorescence~one with flowers in distinct clusters and with bare axis or stem between the clusters.~ intracarinal~the surface between keels.~ intramarginal~situated inside the margin but close to it, e.g. of veins in the leaves of many Myrtaceae.~ intravaginal~of a tiller that grows within the subtending leaf sheath. cf. extravaginal.~ intricate~of plants, with many entangled branches. Fig. 1 D.~{Fig. 1 D}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. introduced (exotic)~not native to the area; not indigenous. cf. endemic.~ introrse~of anthers, dehiscing towards the centre of the flower (check in bud!). cf. extrorse, latrorse.~ invagination~the process of forming a pocket by turning in on itself, as in the floral axis of figs (e.g. Ficus species where the minute flowers and fruits are actually inside the swollen inflorescence stem, the ‘fig’); the resulting multiple fruit is a syconium. Fig. 18 Y.~{Fig. 18 Y}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. involucre~(1) a whorl or several whorls of bracts surrounding a flower or an inflorescence (as around the head in many Asteraceae); (2) a layer of tissue enveloping a particular structure, such as sporangia in many ferns, e.g. Hymenophyllaceae.~ involute~rolled inwards; of a leaf margin rolled upwards. Fig. 10 C. cf. revolute.~{Fig. 10 C}Fig. 10. Leaves and Margins in Cross Section. A, plano-convex; B, incurved; C, involute; D, recurved; E, revolute; F, trigonous; G, triquetrous; H, terete. irregular~see zygomorphic.~ irritable~responding suddenly to stimuli, e.g. the labellum of some orchids (family Orchidaceae) and trigger plants (family Stylidiaceae).~ isobilateral (isolateral, similifacial)~having structurally similar upper and lower surfaces. cf. dorsiventral.~ isodiametric~of equal dimensions, e.g. a cube.~ isotype~a specimen which is, or is believed to be, a duplicate of the holotype, i.e. part of the same collection.~ joint~(1) an articulation, as in a 1-foliolate leaf, Fig. 3 I; (2) a segment of some cladodes, as in many Cactaceae; (3) a node.~{Fig. 3 I}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. jugary~of glands, present on the rachises of bipinnate leaves at the junctions of pairs of pinnae or of pinnules, as in some Acacia species. Fig. 19 H. cf. interjugary.~{Fig. 19 H}Fig. 19. Domatia, Glands etc. A, hairy domatia; B, pit domatia; C, seeds with arils; D, seeds with caruncles; E, stalked petiolar glands; F, basal lamina glands; G, marginal gland on wattle phyllode; H, bipinnate leaf with petiolar gland and jugary gland. juvenile leaves~the first-formed leaves, especially when they differ from the adult leaves.~ karyotype~the gross morphology of the chromosome set, described in terms of number, length, etc.~ keel~(1) a ridge like the keel of a boat, usually on the back of an organ; (2) the two fused anterior petals of the pea flower, see Fabaceae subfamily Faboideae.~ kernel~the seed of a nut, drupe or pyrene.~ kino~reddish exudate from the bark or wood of some trees, see ironbarks in Myrtaceae.~ Kranz anatomy~a specialized anatomy associated with the C4 carboxylation pathway in plants. The vascular system is associated with at least two distinct photosynthetic cell types usually arranged in concentric layers. The cell types differ in ultrastructure and in function. Found in some grasses (Poaceae) and chenopods (Chenopodiaceae). See papers for explanation of terms. Refs Carolin, Jacobs, & Vesk (1973 & 1978).~ labellum~the distinctive median petal in Orchidaceae, usually differing in size and shape from those either side.~ labiate~lipped; where the limb of a corolla or a calyx is divided into 2 parts, called an upper and lower lip.~ lacerate~as if torn; irregularly cut or cleft. Fig. 8 F.~{Fig. 8 F}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. laciniate~as if cut into narrow slender teeth or lobes. Fig. 8 G.~{Fig. 8 G}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. lacuna~a gap or cavity.~ lamella~a thin plate-like layer. adj. lamellose.~ lamina~an expanded portion of a leaf or petal. pl. laminas.~ laminate~broadened into a lamina.~ lanceolate~lance-shaped; 36 times as long as broad and broadest below the middle and tapering to the apex. Fig. 5 I.~{Fig. 5 I}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. lateral~attached to the side of an organ, e.g. leaves on a stem.~ latex~a fluid exuded from cut surfaces of the leaves and stems of some plants, usually milky, sometimes yellowish and watery, e.g. as in many species in families Moraceae and Apocynaceae.~ latrorse~turned sideways; of anthers, dehiscing longitudinally on the side. cf. extrorse, introrse.~ lax~loose, not compact.~ leaf~an organ borne on the stem of a plant, usually expanded and green; typically consisting of the more or less expanded lamina and the petiole or leaf stalk.~ leaflet~one of the ultimate segments of a compound leaf. cf. pinna, pinnule.~ leaf-opposed~arising from the stem opposite a leaf-base, as do some tendrils or inflorescences.~ lectotype~a specimen selected from among those cited with the original description to serve in place of a holotype where the holotype is missing or destroyed, or where no holotype was designated.~ legume~(1) a pod, a dry dehiscent fruit formed from one carpel and having two longitudinal lines of dehiscence, Fig. 18 I; (2) a member of the family Fabaceae.~{Fig. 18 I}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. lemma~the lower of two bracts enclosing the flower of a grass; male lemma - lemma enclosing a male flower; sterile lemma - an empty lemma.~ lenticel~a small raised corky spot or line appearing on young bark, through which gaseous exchange occurs.~ lenticular~a 3-dimensional shape like a doubly convex lens, circular in outline.~ lepidote~covered with small, membranous scales.~ leptomorph~applied to the rhizome system of some bamboos with indeterminate growth in which the aerial shoots arise laterally from an extensive rhizome system.~ leptosporangiate~of ferns, having sporangia with walls consisting of a single layer of cells; the sporangium originating from a single cell. cf. eusporangiate.~ liana (liane)~a woody climbing plant.~ lignified~converted into wood, hardened.~ lignotuber~a woody swelling, partly or wholly underground, at the base of certain plants and containing numerous cortical buds, as in many eucalypts (Fig. 1 H); see mallee.~{Fig. 1 H}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. ligulate~(1) with a ligule; (2) of ray florets in Asteraceae, with a strap shaped limb.~ ligule~(1) a variously shaped appendage facing towards the base of a leaf (especially in grasses), petiole, or perianth segment; (2) the strap shaped corolla lobe or limb in ray florets of Asteraceae.~ limb~the expanded and usually flat portion of an organ, e.g. of a petal, or the expanding part of the corolla above a corolla tube.~ linear~long and narrow with more or less parallel sides, more than 12 times as long as broad. Fig. 5 B.~{Fig. 5 B}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. linear-lanceolate~more than 12 times as long as broad and broadest in the lowest third and tapering to the apex.~ linear-oblanceolate~more than 12 times as long as broad and broadest in the upper third and tapering to the base.~ lineolate~marked with fine or obscure lines.~ lithophyte~a plant growing on a rock, e.g. some orchids. cf. epiphyte~ littoral~on or growing near the seashore.~ loculicidal dehiscence~in capsules, dehiscence in median lines through the walls of the loculi rather than at the partitions between the loculi or at the placentas. Fig. 18 L. cf. septicidal.~{Fig. 18 L}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. loculus~a more or less closed cavity, containing the pollen in anthers (Fig. 20 C) and the ovules in an ovary (Fig. 13). pl. loculi.~{Fig. 20 C}Fig. 20. Anthers, Stamens. A, anther dorsifixed and versatile; B, anther basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal; C, cross section of anther showing loculi and regions of dehiscence; D, dehiscence by valves; E, dehiscence by apical pores; F, diadelphous stamens; G, monadelphous stamens; H, stamens with anthers fused (and with terminal appendages), filaments free.#{Fig. 13}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. lodicule(s)~one or two scale-like structures below the stamens and ovary of a grass and regarded as a reduced perianth.~ lomentum~a legume that breaks transversely into usually 1-seeded indehiscent articles when mature. Fig. 18 J. cf. schizocarp.~{Fig. 18 J}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. long-creeping~in ferns, a rhizome that elongates rapidly so that the fronds are usually well separated from each other. cf. short-creeping.~ longitudinal~of venation, with several veins extending from the base to the apex of the lamina but the veins not more or less parallel with each other. Fig. 9 E.~{Fig. 9 E}Fig. 9. Venation Patterns. A, pinnate; B, 3-veined from base; C, palmate; D, leaves palmately veined, lobes pinnately veined; E, longitudinal; F, parallel; G, dichotomous; H, reticulate; I, areolate. lorate~of leaves, strap-shaped (moderately long with the two margins parallel).~ lunate~crescent-shaped.~ lyrate~lyre-shaped, of pinnatifid or pinnatisect leaves with the terminal lobes much larger than the basal ones. Fig. 5 P.~{Fig. 5 P}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. Malesia~a phytogeographic region; including the Malay Peninsula, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia and New Guinea.~ mallee~(1) a growth form in which many stems arise from a lignotuber, usually applied to eucalypts; (2) of a plant community dominated by mallee eucalypts.~ mangrove~a shrub or small tree growing in salt or brackish water and often with pneumatophores or aerial roots.~ marcescent~withering without falling off.~ marginal~(1) at or very close to the margin; (2) of placentation, with the placenta along the margin of a simple ovary, as in many legumes, Fig. 13 A.~{Fig. 13 A}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. maritime~belonging to the sea; confined to the sea-coast.~ marsh~a waterlogged area; swampy ground without trees.~ mealy~covered with coarse flour-like powder.~ medifixed~attached by or at the middle, e.g. of anthers, attached to the filament at the middle of the connective.~ megasporangium~a sporangium producing megaspores, = ovule in flowering plants.~ megaspore~the spore in heterosporous plants that gives rise to a female gametophyte and is generally larger than the microspore; the spore usually not shed but remaining on the parent plant and developing in situ. cf. microspore.~ megasporophyll~a specialised leaf upon (or in the axil of) which one or more megasporangia are borne. cf. microsporophyll.~ meiosis~the two-stage division of a diploid nucleus in which the genetic recombination occurs and the number of chromosomes characteristic of the species is halved prior to the production of the sexual gametes; this process takes place once in every sexual life cycle.~ membranous~thin and translucent.~ mentum~a chin-like extension at the base of some orchid flowers formed by the column foot and the bases of the lateral sepals.~ mericarp~one segment of a fruit that breaks at maturity into units derived from the individual carpels, sometimes called a coccus. Fig. 18 H & P. See schizocarp.~{Fig. 18 H & P}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. meristem~a growing region of a plant in which cells divide to produce new cells.~ -merous~a suffix indicating that the number of parts in each floral whorl is divisible by the same basic number, e.g. a 5-merous flower is one with the number of sepals, petals and stamens divisible by 5; e.g. 5 sepals, 10 or 5 petals, and 5, 15 or 20 stamens. The number of carpels and their styles or stigmas often does not conform to the basic number.~ mesic~requiring abundant water.~ mesocarp~the fleshy part of the wall of a succulent fruit; the middle layer of the pericarp in a drupe.~ mesomorphic~soft and with little fibrous tissue, but not succulent. cf. scleromorphic.~ mesophyll~photosynthetic tissue of a leaf; of vegetation, characteristic of moist habitats and with soft, fairly large leaves predominating.~ microphyllous~having small leaves that are usually hard and narrow.~ micropyle~the small canal through the integuments (outer layers of tissue) of an ovule, usually at the point furthest away from the funicle (ovule stalk), persisting as a pore in the seed coat.~ microspecies~segregate species of a larger species or species-aggregate, e.g. see Rubus fruticosus.~ microsporangium~the sporangium producing the microspores, within the anthers in angiosperms.~ microspore~the spore in heterosporous plants that gives rise to a male gametophyte and is generally smaller than a megaspore; microspores are shed at maturity. cf. megaspore, pollen.~ microsporocarp~a body containing the microsporangium, e.g. as in some ferns.~ microsporophyll~a specialised leaf upon (or on the axil of) which one or more microsporangia are borne~ midrib~term applied to the midvein or primary vein, especially when it is prominently raised or depressed.~ midvein~the primary vein which runs from the base to the apex of the lamina, usually the most prominent vein, from which arise the secondary or lateral veins.~ minute~very small, usually less than 1 mm long.~ mitra~a pointed cap or hood.~ monadelphous~of stamens, with their filaments fused into one group, as in many Malvaceae. Fig. 20 G. cf. diadelphous.~{Fig. 20 G}Fig. 20. Anthers, Stamens. A, anther dorsifixed and versatile; B, anther basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal; C, cross section of anther showing loculi and regions of dehiscence; D, dehiscence by valves; E, dehiscence by apical pores; F, diadelphous stamens; G, monadelphous stamens; H, stamens with anthers fused (and with terminal appendages), filaments free. moniliform~of a pod or other organ: constricted , so as to resemble a necklace of beads; e.g. hairs, Fig. 15 E.~{Fig. 15 E}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. mono-~a prefix, one: as in monotypic, a genus with 1 species.~ monochasium~a cyme with the branches arising singly. Fig. 17 E. cf. dichasium.~{Fig. 17 E}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). monochlamydeous~of a flower, having only one whorl of perianth parts. cf. dichlamydeous.~ monocotyledons~a major group of angiosperms, characterized by the embryo usually having one cotyledon (seed leaf). cf. dicotyledons.~ monoecious~having male and female flowers on the same plant.~ monophyletic~derived from a single ancestral line. cf. polyphyletic.~ monopodial~with a persistent terminal growing point producing many lateral organs progressively. cf. sympodial.~ monotypic~of a genus, having only one species. cf. unigeneric.~ motile~actively moving; self-propelled.~ mucilage~a slimy, gummy substance sometimes secreted by hairs or glands. adj. mucilaginous.~ mucro~a sharp, usually suddenly constricted, apical point.~ mucronate~having a mucro. Fig. 6 K.~{Fig. 6 K}Fig. 6. Leaf Apices. A, subulate; B, aristate; C, acuminate; D, acute; E, obtuse; F, truncate; G, emarginate; H, retuse; I, obcordate; J, hooked; K, mucronate. mucronulate~a small mucro on obtuse apex.~ multicellular hairs~hairs consisting of more than 1 cell.~ multiple fruit~a cluster of fruits produced from more than one flower and appearing as a single fruit, often on a swollen axis, as in Moraceae. Fig. 18 Y & Z. e.g. syncarp, syconium. cf. aggregate fruit.~{Fig. 18 Y & Z}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. muricate~of a surface, rough with pointed protuberances or short hard tubercles. Fig. 16 B.~{Fig. 16 B}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. muriculate~minutely muricate, rough with minute, short, hard points.~ muticous~blunt, awnless, lacking a point.~ mycorrhiza~a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant root.~ naked~of flowers, without a perianth; of sporangia, not covered with an indusium; of seeds, not enclosed in an ovary, exposed on the surface of a sporophyll.~ napiform~turnip-shaped.~ native~naturally occurring in the area, but not necessarily confined to it. cf. endemic.~ naturalized~originating elsewhere but established and reproducing itself as though native to the area.~ naviculate~boat-shaped.~ nectar~a more or less sweet fluid secreted from a specialized gland or nectary.~ nectary~a gland that secretes nectar.~ neotype~a specimen selected to serve in place of a holotype where none of the material to which the name was originally applied is known to have been preserved.~ nerve~a vein, usually applied to rather straight and strong veins.~ net veins (reticulate)~forming a network or reticulum; e.g. of veins, Fig. 9 H.~{Fig. 9 H}Fig. 9. Venation Patterns. A, pinnate; B, 3-veined from base; C, palmate; D, leaves palmately veined, lobes pinnately veined; E, longitudinal; F, parallel; G, dichotomous; H, reticulate; I, areolate. neuter~sterile.~ nocturnal~of flowers, opening only at night. cf. diurnal.~ node~the level of a stem at which one or more leaves arise.~ nodulose~with small swellings or knobs.~ nomenclature~the names and naming of things; often restricted to the correct usage of scientific names in taxonomy.~ nom. cons.~(nomen conservandum, Latin) a name for a taxon that has been formally accepted as the correct name even though it is contrary to the usual principles of botanical nomenclature.~ nom. illeg.~(nomen illegitimum, Latin) a name which, at its time of publication, was superfluous (because the taxon to which it was applied had already been named) or had already been applied to another plant.~ nom. nud.~(nomen nudum, Latin) a name not published in accordance with the principles of botanical nomenclature (usually without a diagnosis or description of the entity to which it applies and without reference to either); such a name should not be used.~ non~(Latin) not of.~ nut~a dry indehiscent one-seeded fruit formed from two or more carpels. Fig. 18 T.~{Fig. 18 T}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. ob-~a prefix: the other way around, as in obovate.~ obconical~cone-shaped but attached to the narrower end.~ obcordate~heart-shaped but attached at the pointed end, e.g. of a leaf lamina~ oblanceolate~a 2-dimensional shape, lanceolate but broadest in the upper third. Fig. 5 L. cf. lanceolate.~{Fig. 5 L}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. oblate~almost circular, but with breadth slightly greater than the length. Fig. 5 F.~{Fig. 5 F}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. obligate~of parasites, unable to survive without the host. cf. facultative.~ oblique (asymmetric)~of a leaf, leaf base or other organ, having the sides unequal. Fig. 7 E.~{Fig. 7 E}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. obloid~a 3-dimensional shape, almost globose but with breadth slightly greater than the length.~ oblong~a 2-dimensional shape, rectangular with length greater than breadth. Fig. 5 C.~{Fig. 5 C}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. obovate~a 2-dimensional shape, ovate but broadest above the middle. Fig. 5 M.~{Fig. 5 M}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. obpyriform~pear-shaped but broadest above the middle.~ obsolescent~non-functional but not reduced to a rudiment.~ obsolete~reduced to a rudiment, or completely lacking.~ obtuse~blunt or broadly rounded, the converging edges separated by an angle greater than 900, e.g. of an lamina apex (Fig. 6 E) or of a lamina base (Fig. 7 C).~{Fig. 6 E}Fig. 6. Leaf Apices. A, subulate; B, aristate; C, acuminate; D, acute; E, obtuse; F, truncate; G, emarginate; H, retuse; I, obcordate; J, hooked; K, mucronate.#{Fig. 7 C}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. occluded~closed, in the sense of fused as in the leaves of Dianella species.~ ocrea (ochrea)~a sheath formed from two fused stipules encircling the node in Polygonaceae. Fig. 4 H. pl. ocreae.~{Fig. 4 H}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules. oil glands (oil dots)~small structures embedded in a leaf or other organ, secreting a volatile oil, mostly visible as small translucent dots (hand lens needed) against a strong light; usually making the organ aromatic when crushed.~ one-foliolate (1-foliolate, unifoliolate)~a compound leaf reduced to a single leaflet, usually recognized by the articulated or jointed ‘petiole’, which is in fact a petiole plus a petiolule. Fig. 3 I.~{Fig. 3 I}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. ontogeny~the development of a single organism, i.e. the sequence of stages through which it passes during its lifetime.~ open forest~a forest dominated by trees with relatively narrow isobilateral leaves forming sparsely foliaged crowns (usually species of eucalypts); the forest canopy is sparse and often not continuous, allowing sunlight to reach the ground within the forest. cf. closed forest.~ operculum (calyptra)~a cap-like covering or lid of some flowers or fruits that becomes detached at maturity by abscission; e.g. (1) the cap on the buds of eucalypts, (2) the lid of circumsciss capsules.~ opposite~inserted at the same level, as in leaves on the opposite side of the stem (Fig. 2 C & D), or in flowers the floral parts on the same radius. cf. alternate.~{Fig. 2 C & D}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. order~a taxonomic group consisting of one or more closely related families.~ orbicular~orb-shaped, strictly a 3-dimensional shape but often used for a 2 dimensional circular shape, as for leaves (orbiculate).~ orifice~a small opening or aperture.~ orthotropous~of an ovule, with the body straight and erect so that the micropyle is terminal and the funicle attached at the base; embryo sac straight Fig. 21 A & B. cf. amphitropous, anatropous, campylotropous, hemitropous.~{Fig. 21 A & B}Fig. 21. Ovules. A, orthotropous ovule; B–F, ovules in longitudinal section: B, orthotropous ovule; C, hemitropous ovule; D, campylotropous ovule; E, amphitropous ovule; F, anatropous ovule. ortho-~a prefix: straight.~ orthostichous~arranged in regular vertical rows on a stem or axis. cf. distichous.~ orthotropic~mode of growth of vertical branches or leading shoots, especially in conifers where lateral (plagiotropic) branches may have different morphology.~ osmophore~a scent-producing gland.~ ostiole~an opening or pore, e.g. at the apex of a fig (fruit of Ficus species). adj. ostiolate~ ovary~the basal portion of a carpel or a group of fused carpels in which one or more ovules are enclosed, and which after fertilization develops into the fruit.~ ovate~a 2-dimensional shape, with the length 1–3 times the breadth, and broadest below the middle. Fig. 5 J.~{Fig. 5 J}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. ovoid~the 3-dimensional equivalent of ovate; egg-shaped.~ ovule~a structure in seed plants within which one or more megaspores are formed, and which after fertilization develops into the seed.~ ovuliferous~bearing ovules (e.g. applied to scales in a megasporangiate cone in gymnosperms).~ ovulode~a sterile ovule.~ p.p.~(pro parte, Latin) in part; in nomenclature, to denote that the preceding taxon includes more than 1 currently recognized entity, and only 1 of those entities is being considered.~ pachymorph~applied to the rhizome systems of some bamboos where growth is determinate and sympodial, the plants forming large clumps with short rhizomes, the culms arising terminally from the rhizomes and new rhizomes arising laterally.~ packing bracts~bracts that fill out the spaces between flowers and form the surface of the spike, as in Xanthorrhoea species.~ palea~(1) the upper of 2 bracts enclosing the flower of a grass; (2) one of the chaffy scales on the petiole and rachis of many ferns.~ palmate (digitate)~(1) of a compound leaf with 3 or more leaflets arising from the one point at the top of the petiole, Fig. 3 E & L; (2) of veins in a lamina, radiating from the one point, Fig. 9 C & D. adv. palmately.~{Fig. 3 E & L}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate.#{Fig. 9 C & D}Fig. 9. Venation Patterns. A, pinnate; B, 3-veined from base; C, palmate; D, leaves palmately veined, lobes pinnately veined; E, longitudinal; F, parallel; G, dichotomous; H, reticulate; I, areolate. palmately trifoliolate~of a leaf, with 3 leaflets arranged palmately, i.e. all the petiolules of about the same length. Fig. 3 L. cf. pinnately trifoliolate.~{Fig. 3 L}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. palmatifid~of a leaf cut into lobes to less than halfway in a palmate form. Fig. 5 U.~{Fig. 5 U}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. palmatisect~of a leaf cut into lobes to more than halfway in a palmate form. Fig. 5 V.~{Fig. 5 V}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. palmativeined~of leaves, palmately veined, i.e. with the (main) veins radiating from one basal point.~ palynology~the scientific study of pollen.~ panicle~a compound inflorescence with a main axis and lateral branches which are further branched, and in which each axis ends in a flower or flower bud. Fig. 17 A. adj. paniculate.~{Fig. 17 A}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). papilionaceous~(papilionate) butterfly-like; with a corolla like that of a pea, as in the family Fabaceae subfamily Faboideae.~ papilla~a small elongated or nipple-shaped protuberance on an organ. pl. papillae.~ papillose~of a surface, rough with papillae. Fig. 16 D.~{Fig. 16 D}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. pappus~the group of appendages, usually hairs or scales, above the ovary and outside the corolla in Asteraceae (possibly a modified calyx); often persisting on the fruit and aiding in its dispersal.~ parallel~of veins in a lamina, all running in the same direction and equally distant from one another, as in grass leaves. Fig. 9 F.~{Fig. 9 F}Fig. 9. Venation Patterns. A, pinnate; B, 3-veined from base; C, palmate; D, leaves palmately veined, lobes pinnately veined; E, longitudinal; F, parallel; G, dichotomous; H, reticulate; I, areolate. paraphysis~a sterile filament occurring amongst the sporangia of some ferns. pl. paraphyses.~ parasite~an organism growing and feeding upon another organism (the host). A hemiparasite is partly parasitic, partly autotrophic, and has some chlorophyll.~ paratype~a specimen or illustration, other than the holotype, that was cited with the original publication of a name.~ parenchyma~plant tissue consisting of mature, living cells that are relatively unspecialised in function.~ parietal~(1) attached to the wall; (2) of placentation, with placentas on the wall or intruding partitions of a unilocular compound ovary, Fig. 13 B.~{Fig. 13 B}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. paripinnate~term describing a pinnately compound leaf without a single terminal leaflet, and therefore usually with an even number of leaflets. Fig. 3 D. cf. imparipinnate.~{Fig. 3 D}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. partial inflorescence~a portion of an inflorescence, particularly a part sufficiently branched to show the same structural plan as the inflorescence as a whole.~ patelliform~knee-shaped; shaped like a small dish, circular and rimmed.~ pectinate~comb-like.~ pedate~term describing a palmately compound leaf with the lateral leaflets divided again. Fig. 3 F. cf. ternate.~{Fig. 3 F}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. pedicel~the stalk of a flower (above the subtending bract or leaf); bracteoles are sometimes present on a pedicel.~ peduncle~the stalk of an inflorescence~ pellucid~transparent.~ peltate~term describing an organ with a stalk or point of attachment on its lower surface away from the margin, often umbrella-like; e.g. leaves (Fig. 4 A), scales (Fig. 15 H).~{Fig. 4 A}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules.#{Fig. 15 H}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. pendent (pendulous)~drooping, hanging downwards; e.g. of a shrub,. Fig. 1 O; of an ovule hanging from the top of the ovary, i.e. in an apical position. Fig. 13 G.~{Fig. 1 O}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent.#{Fig. 13 G}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. pendulous~see pendent.~ penicillate~pinnately arranged veins in which the secondary veins are conspicuous and numerous and are more or less parallel to each other, as in a feather.~ penniveined~pinnately arranged veins in which the secondary veins are conspicuous and numerous and are more or less parallel to each other, as in a feather.~ pentamerous~of a flower, having five parts in each floral whorl (not necessarily including the gynoecium).~ pepo~a fruit with firm skin, pulpy interior, many-seeded and a single loculus, derived from an inferior ovary, e.g. a pumpkin.~ perennating~(of a plant) remaining alive for several years; (of an organ) a vegetative part that assists a plant to perennate.~ perennial~a plant whose life-span extends over more than one growing season. cf. biennial, annual.~ perfoliate~of a sessile leaf or bract, having its base completely surrounding the stem. Fig. 4 F.~{Fig. 4 F}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules. perianth~the calyx and corolla collectively; especially when they are similar, individual segments then being called tepals.~ pericarp~the wall of the fruit, developed from the ovary wall. cf. endocarp, exocarp, mesocarp.~ perigynous~term describing sepals, petals and stamens that are attached to the rim of a lateral or upward expansion of the receptacle, or attached to the rim of a hypanthium which is not fused to the ovary. Fig. 12 D.~{Fig. 12 D}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped. perisperm~nutritive tissue within the seed which is formed outside the embryo sac, lies between the embryo sac and the testa. cf. endosperm.~ pers. comm.~personal communication; information gained from other than published sources.~ persistent~remaining until the part that bears it is fully matured, e.g. of floral parts remaining until fruit is mature; of a leaf base, remaining attached to the plant after the leaf or frond has been shed.~ petal~a free segment of the corolla.~ petaline~of the petals, e.g. petaline calyptra, the calyptra formed from petals.~ petaloid~resembling a petal, especially in colour and texture.~ petiole~the stalk of a leaf. adj. petiolate. Fig. 4B.~ petiolule~the stalk of a leaflet. See also terminal petiolule.~ phanerogam~a plant with conspicuous reproductive parts; a plat reproducing by seeds. cf. cryptogam.~ phenotype~the physical characteristics of an organism; the outward expression of characteristics conferred on an organism by its genotype. cf. genotype.~ pheromone~a substance that attracts certain insects, as in the discharge from osmophores.~ phloem~the tissue in the conducting system of a plant through which metabolites (products of chemical reactions in the plant) are transported. cf. xylem.~ phyllary~an involucral bract of the Asteraceae, collectively the phyllaries surrounding a head form the calyculus.~ phyllichnium~in family Casuarinaceae, the ridge of a branchlet article. pl. phyllichnia.~ phyllode~a flattened petiole, leaf-like in appearance and function, replacing the lamina, as in many wattles.~ phyllotaxy~the arrangement of leaves on a stem (when spiral, often expressed quantitatively as the fraction of the circumference of the stem that separates two successive leaves).~ phylogeny~the evolutionary development of a plant group, i.e. its derivation from its ancestors and the relationship among its members. adj. phylogenetic.~ phylum~a taxon of high rank, the major unit of classification. cf. division~ pilose~hairy with long soft weak hairs which are clearly separated but not sparse. Fig. 14 H.~{Fig. 14 H}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. pinna~a primary segment of the lamina of a compound leaf. pl. pinnae.~ pinnate~(1) (1-pinnate) of a leaf, with the lamina divided into pinnae in 2 rows along a rachis, once compound (Fig. 3 C & D) see imparipinnate, paripinnate. cf. bipinnate, tripinnate; (2) of veins, with the secondary veins arranged regularly (Fig. 9 A) cf. penniveined. adv. pinnately.~{Fig. 3 C & D}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate.#{Fig. 9 A}Fig. 9. Venation Patterns. A, pinnate; B, 3-veined from base; C, palmate; D, leaves palmately veined, lobes pinnately veined; E, longitudinal; F, parallel; G, dichotomous; H, reticulate; I, areolate. pinnately trifoliolate~of a leaf, with three leaflets arranged pinnately, i.e. the terminal petiolule usually jointed and longer than the lateral ones. Fig. 3 K. cf. palmately trifoliolate.~{Fig. 3 K}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. pinnatifid~of simple leaves or leaflets, of the lamina cut into lobes on both sides of the midrib. Fig. 5 R. cf. pinnatisect.~{Fig. 5 R}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. pinnatisect~of simple leaves or leaflets, of the lamina cut down almost to the midrib but having the segments confluent with it. e.g. as in the ultimate segments of some fern fronds. Fig. 5 S. cf. pinnatifid.~{Fig. 5 S}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. pinnule~a leaflet of a bipinnate leaf. pl. pinnules.~ pistil~a free carpel or a group of fused carpels. See gynoecium.~ pistillate~with a female flower.~ pistillode~a rudimentary pistil present in some male flowers.~ pith~the centremost tissue of a stem, often soft and spongy.~ pitted~having numerous small depressions on the surface.~ placenta~the part of the ovary to which the ovules are attached.~ placentation~the arrangement of the placentas and the attached ovules. Fig.13.~{Fig.13}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. plagiotropic~mode of growth of lateral branches, growing horizontally away from the leading shoot and maintaining a different morphology, as in some conifers. cf. orthotropic.~ plano-convex~with upper surface convex, lower surface more or less flat. Fig. 10 A.~{Fig. 10 A}Fig. 10. Leaves and Margins in Cross Section. A, plano-convex; B, incurved; C, involute; D, recurved; E, revolute; F, trigonous; G, triquetrous; H, terete. plicate~longitudinally folded. Fig. 11 I.~{Fig. 11 I}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. -ploid~suffix; multiple of a single basic set of chromosomes in the nucleus; e.g. haploid = 1 set, diploid = 2 sets; see also polyploid.~ plumose~feather-like, with a central axis and fine hairs arising from it; e.g. (1) the styles in Clematis species, (2) the pappus of some Asteraceae, Fig. 15 K.~{Fig. 15 K}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. plumule~the shoot of the embryo.~ pluritubulose~organs with several to many transverse as well as several longitudinal septa (seen by splitting the organ). cf. unitubulose.~ pneumatophores~specialized vertical roots produced by some vascular plants which grow in water, water-logged mud or tidal swamps; the roots contain spongy tissue which enables them to exchange gases with the atmosphere through lenticels in their aerial portions, as in many mangroves.~ pod~a legume or superficially similar fruit. Fig. 18 I.~{Fig. 18 I}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. pollen~the microspores of seed plants, formed in and shed from the anthers, by which time some nuclear division has taken place to form a gametophyte enclosed in the spore wall.~ pollination~the transference of pollen from the anther to the stigma of flowers, and from the microsporangium to the pollen chamber of conifers and cycads.~ pollinium~a mass of pollen grains cohering by means of their wavy texture or fine threads, as in Asclepiadaceae. pl. pollinia.~ polygamodioecious~of plants, having bisexual and male flowers in some plants and bisexual and female flowers on others. cf. androdioecious, andromonoecious, dioecious, monoecious, polygamomonoecious, polygamous.~ polygamomonoecious~of plants, having bisexual and unisexual flowers on the same plant. cf. androdioecious, andromonoecious, dioecious, monoecious, polygamodioecious, polygamous.~ polygamous~having bisexual and unisexual flowers on the same plant.~ polymorphic~displaying a number of varieties of form.~ polypetalous~with free petals. cf. gamopetalous.~ polyphyletic~composed of members that originated, independently, from more than one evolutionary line. cf. monophyletic.~ polyploid~having more than two lots of the basic set of chromosomes in the nucleus. cf. diploid, haploid.~ pome~a fleshy false fruit, formed from an inferior ovary, in which the hypanthium has enlarged to enclose the true fruit, as in Malaceae. Fig. 18 C.~{Fig. 18 C}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. poricidal~opening by pores, e.g. of anthers (Fig. 20 E) or capsules (Fig. 18 N).~{Fig. 20 E}Fig. 20. Anthers, Stamens. A, anther dorsifixed and versatile; B, anther basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal; C, cross section of anther showing loculi and regions of dehiscence; D, dehiscence by valves; E, dehiscence by apical pores; F, diadelphous stamens; G, monadelphous stamens; H, stamens with anthers fused (and with terminal appendages), filaments free.#{Fig. 18 N}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. porrect~pointed outward.~ posterior~toward the axis, away from the subtending bract. cf. anterior.~ praemorse~as though the end were bitten off, coarsely erose.~ prickle~a hard, pointed outgrowth from the surface of a plant, involving several layers of cells, but not containing a vascular system. Fig. 14 O. adj. prickly. cf. spine, bristle.~{Fig. 14 O}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. proboscis~a snout, a surface projection.~ probract~small, leaf-like structure at the base of an inflorescence in family Cucurbitaceae, usually arising opposite a tendril.~ processes~outgrowths or projections from a surface.~ procumbent~having stems trailing or spreading over the ground. Fig. 1 K.~{Fig. 1 K}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. proliferous~plants which bear adventitious buds on the leaves or flowers, such buds being capable of rooting and forming separate plants. e.g. bulbils, epiphyllous plantlets.~ propagule~a structure with the capacity to give rise to a new plant, e.g. (1) a seed, (2) part of the vegetative body capable of independent growth if detached from the plant.~ prophyll(s)~the first leaf or pair of leaves of a shoot, in some monocotyledons delicate and not differentiated into blade and sheath.~ prostrate~lying flat on the ground. Fig. 1 L.~{Fig. 1 L}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. protandrous~of a flower, shedding pollen before the stigma is receptive.~ prothallus~the gametophyte stage of ferns and fern allies; usually flattened and delicate.~ protogynous~of a flower, with the stigma becoming receptive and ceasing to be receptive before the pollen is shed.~ protuberance~a prominently raised area on the surface of an organ, e.g. on bracteoles (as in family Casuarinaceae).~ proximal~near to the point of origin or attachment. cf. distal.~ pruinose~of a surface, having a waxy bloom that may be rubbed off. cf. glaucous.~ pseudanthium~a condensed inflorescence unit in which several flowers resemble a single flower, as in Centrolepis.~ pseudo-~a prefix: false; apparent but not genuine.~ pseudobulb~a thickened bulb-like stem of sympodial orchids with one or several internodes.~ pseudopinnate~term describing a lateral shoot resembling a pinnate leaf, i.e. a shoot with limited growth and with simple leaves arranged in 2 rows like the leaflets of a pinnate leaf.~ pseudowhorled~of leaves, arranged in clusters on the stem, the clusters separated by regular intervals, usually produced behind a scaly bud. Fig. 2 G. cf. whorl.~{Fig. 2 G}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. puberulous (puberulent)~a dense covering of very short soft hairs, minutely pubescent.~ pubescent~a somewhat dense covering of short, weak, soft hairs. Fig. 14 B.~{Fig. 14 B}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. pulvinule~the pulvinus at the base of a petiolule.~ pulvinus~the swelling at the base of the petiole, often capable of changing form to bring about movement of leaf, sometimes glandular or responsive to touch. A similar swelling near the apex of a petiole is referred to as an upper pulvinus. pl. pulvini.~ punctate~marked with dots.~ punctulate~minutely dotted.~ pungent~(1) ending in a stiff, sharp point; (2) having an acrid taste or smell.~ pustulate~covered with small blisters.~ pyramidal~pyramid-shaped, broadest at or near the base.~ pyrene~the endocarp and enclosed seed of a drupaceous fruit.~ pyriform~pear-shaped.~ quincuncial~of the arrangement of corolla lobes in a bud, a variant of imbricate aestivation.~ raceme~a simple inflorescence ending in a non-floral bud and in which the flowers are stalked, i.e. an indeterminate inflorescence. Fig. 17 H. cf. raceme-like, spike.~{Fig. 17 H}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). raceme-like~applied to a simple inflorescence ending in a floral bud in which the flowers are stalked, i.e. resembling a raceme but determinate; also used for conflorescences of similar form, particularly where there has been reduction from more complex types. cf. raceme, spike-like.~ rachilla~the axis of a grass spikelet above the glumes, also the axis in sedge spikelets.~ rachis~the axis of an inflorescence, pinnate leaf, or of a pinna in a bipinnate leaf.~ radical (basal)~of leaves, clustered at the base of the stem. Fig. 2 I. cf. cauline, rosette.~{Fig. 2 I}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. radicle~the portion of an embryo that gives rise to the primary root system of a plant.~ rainforest (closed forest)~a forest dominated by broad-leaved trees with dense crowns that form a continuous layer (canopy) and with one or more of the following growth forms~ ramiflory~the production of flowers and fruits behind the current foliage on woody branches formed in previous, but recent, seasons. adj. ramiflorous. cf. cauliflory.~ rank~(1) a vertical row; (2) leaves that are 2-ranked are in 2 vertical rows, and may be alternate or opposite.~ raphe~the part of the stalk of an anatropous ovule that is fused along the side of the ovule.~ raphides~needle-like crystals that occur in bundles in the vacuoles of some plant cells.~ ray floret (ray flower)~a zygomorphic flower in many species of the family Asteraceae, usually formed towards the periphery of the head and with the corolla extended into a strap-shaped ligule. cf. disc floret.~ receptacle~the often more or less expanded top of the stalk on which a flower or flower-head arises, Fig. 12 A; an axis on which sporangia arise in ferns.~{Fig. 12 A}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped. recurved~curved backwards (and hence usually downwards), e.g. of the margins of a leaf. Fig. 10 D. cf. revolute, incurved, reflexed.~{Fig. 10 D}Fig. 10. Leaves and Margins in Cross Section. A, plano-convex; B, incurved; C, involute; D, recurved; E, revolute; F, trigonous; G, triquetrous; H, terete. reflexed~bent sharply backwards (and hence usually downwards). cf. deflexed, inflexed.~ regular~see actinomorphic.~ reniform~kidney-shaped. Fig. 5 G.~{Fig. 5 G}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. replum~a longitudinal partition in fruits of the family Brassicaceae, see silicula, siliqua.~ resinous~with a hardened sticky surface.~ resupinate~twisted through 180° as in the ovary of most orchid (family Orchidaceae) flowers.~ reticulate~forming a network or reticulum; e.g. of veins, Fig. 9 H.~{Fig. 9 H}Fig. 9. Venation Patterns. A, pinnate; B, 3-veined from base; C, palmate; D, leaves palmately veined, lobes pinnately veined; E, longitudinal; F, parallel; G, dichotomous; H, reticulate; I, areolate. retinaculum~(1) a hook-like structure to which another structure is tethered, as in Orchidaceae and Asclepiadaceae (the structure to which pollen masses are attached) or in Acanthaceae (the persistent stalk of an ovule); (2) the marginal outgrowth from a spadix, as in Zosteraceae. pl. retinacula.~ retrorse~directed backwards (and thus often downwards).~ retuse~having the apex rounded and with a small notch. Fig. 6 H.~{Fig. 6 H}Fig. 6. Leaf Apices. A, subulate; B, aristate; C, acuminate; D, acute; E, obtuse; F, truncate; G, emarginate; H, retuse; I, obcordate; J, hooked; K, mucronate. revolute~rolled backwards (and thus often downwards), e.g. of the margins of a leaf. Fig. 10 E. cf. recurved, involute.~{Fig. 10 E}Fig. 10. Leaves and Margins in Cross Section. A, plano-convex; B, incurved; C, involute; D, recurved; E, revolute; F, trigonous; G, triquetrous; H, terete. rhizoid~a thread-like, unicellular absorbing structure, in fern gametophytes and some non-vascular plants.~ rhizome~an underground stem, usually growing horizontally. adj. rhizomatous. Fig. 1 N.~{Fig. 1 N}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. rhombic~having the form of a 2-dimensional diamond-shaped figure. Fig. 5 H.~{Fig. 5 H}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. rhomboid~having the form of a 3-dimensional diamond-shaped solid.~ riparian~of plants growing by rivers or streams.~ root~part of the underground axial system of a plant which does not bear leaves and tends to grow downwards or laterally in the soil. See also adventitious, aerial root.~ rootstock~a swollen region at the junction of root system and stem, mostly below ground level.~ rosette~a radiating cluster of leaves, usually close to the ground at the base of a plant. Fig. 2 I. See also radical.~{Fig. 2 I}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. rostellum~in orchids, a projection of the upper edge of the stigma in front of the anthers.~ rostrate~beaked.~ rosulate~clustered into a rosette.~ rotate~term applied to a shortly tubular corolla with spreading lobes or limbs.~ rudimentary~imperfectly developed and non-functional.~ rugose (wrinkled)~covered with coarse lines or furrows. Fig. 16 G.~{Fig. 16 G}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. rugulose~with tiny wrinkles.~ ruminate~(1) of a surface or tissue, with an irregular, involuted outline, as in a rumen; (2) mottled in appearance.~ runcinate~term describing a pinnatifid or pinnatisect leaf with sharply incised lobes or teeth pointing towards the base. Fig. 5 Q.~{Fig. 5 Q}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. runner~a slender prostrate stem having a bud at the end which sends out leaves and roots.~ rush~a plant belonging to the family Juncaceae or, more loosely, to various monocotyledons.~ sac~a pouch. adj. saccate.~ s.lat.~(sensu lato; Latin) of a plant name, in the broad sense.~ s.str.~(sensu stricto; Latin) of a plant name, in the narrow sense.~ sagittate~shaped like an arrow-head, with the two lobes at the base acute and retrorse; e.g of a lamina or sometimes applied to the base of a lamina. Fig. 7 H.~{Fig. 7 H}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. samara~a dry indehiscent fruit with its wall expanded into a wing. Fig. 18 U.~{Fig. 18 U}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. samphire~(in Australia) any plant of the tribe Salicorniae (family Chenopodiaceae), e.g. Sarcocornia, Halosarcia, Sclerostegia, or, a community dominated by one or more of these species.~ saprophyte~an organism deriving its nourishment from dead organic matter and usually lacking chlorophyll. cf. parasite.~ scabrous~rough to the touch; having the surface rough with minute hard processes or very short rigid hairs. Fig. 14 K.~{Fig. 14 K}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. scalariform~having a ladder-like pattern~ scaberulous (scabridulous)~slightly or minutely rough to the touch (diminutive of scabrous).~ scale~(1) any thin and often scarious body, often a reduced or rudimentary leaf, e.g. covering a dormant bud, Fig. 3 G; (2) a thin flap of tissue, e.g. at the base of stamens; (3) a small papery surface structure on stems and leaves. Fig. 15 H & I.~{Fig. 3 G}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate.#{Fig. 15 H & I}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. scandent~climbing, usually applied in cases where special climbing organs are not developed.~ scape~the stem-like flowering stalk of a plant with radical leaves.~ scarious~dry and more or less membranous.~ schizocarp~a dry fruit which splits into individual carpels, each of which is called a mericarp or coccus. Fig. 18 H.~{Fig. 18 H}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. schizocarpic capsule~a schizocarp in which the individual cocci or mericarps dehisce, as in some Rutaceae. Fig. 18 P.~{Fig. 18 P}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. sclerid~a cell with a lignified, thick and pitted wall.~ sclerenchyma~mechanical tissue with heavily thickened cell walls.~ scleromorph~a plant whose leaves (or stems, if leafless) are hard in texture, usually having thick cuticle and containing many fibres. cf. xeromorph.~ scleromorphic~hard and with a large amount of fibrous tissue. cf. mesomorphic.~ sclerophyll~a plant with hard, stiff leaves. adj. sclerophyllous.~ scribbles~irregular lines on the barks of some eucalypts, being the old tunnels burrowed by moth larvae between the bark layers and exposed when the outer layer sheds.~ scrobiculate~with shallow depressions.~ scrub~dense vegetation dominated by shrubs.~ scurfy~covered with small bran-like membranous scales.~ section~a taxonomic grouping, in rank between genus and species.~ secund~flowers or other structures arranged on, or turned to one side of an axis, e.g. inflorescence of many Grevillea species.~ sedge~a plant belonging to the family Cyperaceae.~ seed~the reproductive body formed from a fertilized ovule, and comprising an embryo, with or without endosperm or perisperm, and a surrounding protective seed coat or testa.~ segment~a free or almost free part or subdivision of an organ. calyx and corolla segments of flowers called sepals and petals respectively; undifferentiated segments in flowers are called tepals.~ segregate~distinct, kept apart: applied to taxa of various rank, e.g. segregate families of family Rosaceae s.lat. are Amygdalaceae, Malaceae and Rosaceae s.str.~ semi~a prefix: half.~ sens. lat.~see s.lat.~ sensu~(Latin) in the sense of.~ sepal~one of the outer leaf-like structures surrounding the corolla (if present) and fertile organs of the flower, usually green; collectively the calyx.~ sepaline~of the sepals, e.g. sepaline calyptra, the calyptra formed from sepals.~ sepaloid~resembling a sepal, i.e. not petaloid.~ septal~(of nectaries) at the junction of the septa in the ovary.~ septate~divided by internal transverse partitions.~ septate-nodulose~used of leaves with prominent transverse septa.~ septicidal capsule~dehiscing by splits along the sutures between adjacent carpels. Fig. 18 M.~{Fig. 18 M}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. septum~a partition or cross-wall; pl. septa.~ seriate~in series, usually in whorls or apparent whorls; usually applied to floral parts.~ sericeous (silky)~covered with fine soft more or less straight appressed hairs aligned in the same direction, with a lustrous sheen and satin-like to the touch. Fig. 14 C.~{Fig. 14 C}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. serrate~saw-toothed, finely and regularly toothed.~ serrulate~finely saw-toothed.~ sessile~without a stalk, e.g. of a leaf without a petiole. Fig. 4 D.~{Fig. 4 D}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules. seta~a bristle or stiff hair. adj. setaceous.~ setaceous~bristly.~ setose~bristly.~ sheath~a tubular or rolled part of an organ, e.g. the lower part of the leaf in most grasses.~ sheathing~clasping or surrounding the stem. Fig. 4 G.~{Fig. 4 G}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules. shrub~a much-branched woody plant less than 8 m high and usually with many stems. Tall shrubs are mostly 2–8 m high; small shrubs 1–2 m high; subshrubs less than 1 m high.~ sigmoid (sigmoidal)~curved in two directions, an S-shaped curve.~ siliceous~containing particles of silica.~ silicula~a fruit like a siliqua but less than 3 times as long as broad.~ siliqua~a dry dehiscent fruit derived from a superior ovary of two carpels and with 2 parietal placentas connected by a false septum, usually at least 3 times as long as broad, as in family Brassicaceae. Fig. 18 K.~{Fig. 18 K}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. silky~covered with fine soft more or less straight appressed hairs aligned in the same direction, with a lustrous sheen and satin-like to the touch. Fig. 14 C.~{Fig. 14 C}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. similifacial (isobilateral, isolateral)~having structurally similar upper and lower surfaces. cf. dorsiventral.~ simple~of a single piece or series; (1) of a leaf, with lamina not divided into leaflets (Fig. 3 H) cf. unifoliolate, compound; (2) of an inflorescence, unbranched with the pedicels arising from the main axis.~{Fig. 3 H}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. sinuate~with a deeply wavy margin. Fig. 8 K. cf. undulate.~{Fig. 8 K}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. sinus~the gap or recess between two lobes or segments.~ smooth~of surfaces, without roughness or indumentum.~ smut~fungal disease in which black sooty masses of spores cover the affected parts.~ solifluction~slow, downward, movement of rock debris or soil saturated with melt-water over frozen subsoil.~ solitary~borne singly, not grouped together, e.g. of flowers not grouped into an inflorescence. Fig. 17 L & M.~{Fig. 17 L & M}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). sorus~a discrete aggregate of sporangia in ferns.~ spadix~a spicate inflorescence with a thickened, often succulent axis, the whole often being surrounded by a spathe. Fig. 17 Q.~{Fig. 17 Q}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). spathaceous~like a spathe; with a spathe.~ spathe~a large bract at the base of a spadix, which it encloses (at least initially) as a sheath.~ spatheate~with spathes.~ spathella~a closed membranous sac which envelopes the immature flower in some family Podostemaceae, rupturing irregularly as the pedicel elongates at anthesis.~ spatheole~the ultimate spathe where an inflorescence or portions of an inflorescence are subtended by several spathes.~ spathulate~spoon-shaped, e.g. of a leaf. Fig. 5 O.~{Fig. 5 O}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. species~a taxon comprising individuals, or populations of individuals, that show certain common features and are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. cf. genus.~ spicate~in the form of a spike.~ spicule~a small slender sharp-pointed process.~ spike~a simple inflorescence, terminating in a non-floral bud, in which the flowers are sessile, i.e. a type of indeterminate inflorescence. Fig. 17 I. cf. spike-like, raceme.~{Fig. 17 I}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). spikelet~the small partial inflorescence (unit) in Poaceae, Cyperaceae and Restionaceae, composed of an axis bearing glumes, most of which enclose a small flower. Fig. 17 N.~{Fig. 17 N}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). spike-like~of a simple inflorescence, terminating in a floral bud and having the flowers sessile, i.e. a type of determinate inflorescence. cf. spike, raceme-like.~ spine (thorn)~a stiff process with a sharp point, formed by a modification of a plant organ that contains vascular tissue, e.g. a lateral branch or a stipule. Fig. 14 P. adj. spinose. cf. prickle.~{Fig. 14 P}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. spinescent~ending in a spine; modified to form a spine.~ spinose~bearing spines.~ spinule~a small spine.~ spinulose~with spinules.~ spiral~of leaves or floral organs, borne singly at different levels on the axis, but not in a single vertical line; leaves borne spirally are said to be alternate on the stem. Fig. 2 A. cf. whorled, alternate.~{Fig. 2 A}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. spirodistichous~2-ranked and arranged spirally up stem.~ spongy~having the texture of a sponge, the cells being separated by air spaces and containing air, as in pith or some seed coats.~ sporangiate~bearing spores.~ sporangiophore~the stalk of a sporangium.~ sporangium~a structure in which spores are formed. pl. sporangia.~ spore~a unicellular or few-celled asexual or sexual reproductive unit, not containing an embryo. cf. heterosporous, homosporous.~ sporocarp~the fruiting body containing sporangia found in water ferns.~ sporogenous~of cells or tissues, in which spores are formed.~ sporophyll~a specialized leaf-like organ on which one or more sporangia are borne.~ sporophyte~a plant, or phase of a life cycle, that bears the spores formed during the sexual reproductive cycle. cf. gametophyte.~ spreading~extending horizontally, e.g. branches; standing out at right angles to axis, e.g. leaves or haris.~ spur~A slender sac-like or hollow protuberance from a part of the calyx or corolla, often secreting nectar. adj. spurred.~ squamule~a small scale, often within the sheathing base of a leaf.~ squamulose~covered with small scales.~ squarrose~usually sharply curved downward or outward in the apical region, e.g. of involucral bracts.~ stamen~one of the male organs of the flower, consisting of a pollen-bearing anther and a filament or stalk. adj. staminate. cf. androecium.~ staminal~of the stamens, e.g. staminal ring, ring or scar remaining after whorl of stames have fallen.~ staminode~a sterile stamen, often reduced or modified.~ staminophore~a band of tissue around the apex of the hypanthium in a eucalypt flower on which the stamens are inserted.~ standard~the large upper petal of a pea flower, see Fabaceae subfamily Faboideae.~ stellate~star-shaped; e.g. of hairs with radiating branches. Fig. 15 G.~{Fig. 15 G}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. stem~the main axis or a branch of the main axial system of a plant, developed from the plumule of the embryo and typically bearing leaves and generally above the ground.~ sterile (barren)~(1) without reproductive structures, not producing seed, spores or pollen; (2) of seeds, spores or pollen, not capable of germination. cf. fertile.~ stereome~the tissue of a plant that provides mechanical support~ stigma~the part of the carpel receptive to pollen, generally terminal on the style. adj. stigmatic.~ stilt roots~oblique adventitious roots from the stem, as in some mangroves and palms.~ stinging hair~a hollow hair seated on a gland which secretes an irritating fluid, e.g. as in Dendrocnide species.~ stipe~(1) a stalk or support, e.g. of a gynoecium or carpel; (2) the petiole of a fern frond. adj. stipitate.~ stipel (stipella)~a stipule-like organ at the base of a leaflet. pl. stipels, stipellae.~ stipitate~stalked; borne on a stipe; of an ovary, borne on a gynophore.~ stipule~one or a pair of appendages sometimes developed at the base of a leaf in many dicotyledons; can be leaf-like, scarious or spinose. Fig. 4 I–L.~{Fig. 4 I–L}Fig. 4. Lamina or Leaf Attachment, Stipules etc. A, peltate; B, petiolate; C, decurrent; D, sessile; E, gamophyllous; F, perfoliate; G, sheathing; H, ocrea; I–L, stipules; I, paired stipules; J, interpetiolar stipules; K, spinose stipules; L, rolled terminal stipules. stolon~a more or less horizontal stem growing above ground and rooting at the nodes. adj. stoloniferous. Fig. 1 M.~{Fig. 1 M}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. stomate (stoma)~a pore bounded by two guard cells in the epidermis, especially in leaves, for the exchange of gases between the plant tissues and the surrounding atmosphere. pl. stomates, stomata.~ stomium~a region of dehiscence, e.g. of an anther in flowering plants, of a sporangium in ferns.~ stone cell~short sclereid cell reponsible for the distinctive texture of some tissues, e.g. in the pear fruit.~ stramineous~straw-coloured.~ striate~striped with parallel longitudinal ridges or lines. Fig. 16 H.~{Fig. 16 H}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. strigose~covered with sharp appressed rigid bristly hairs that are often swollen at the base. Fig. 14 M.~{Fig. 14 M}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. strobilus (cone)~fertile stem with short internodes and sporophylls bearing sporangia, for example, as in many species of Lycopodium.~ striolate~finely striate.~ strophiole~see caruncle.~ struma~a cushion-like swelling, e.g. at the apex of staminal filaments in Dianella.~ style~the part of the carpel between the stigma and ovary, often elongated.~ stylopodium~a disc-like enlargement of the base of the style.~ sub-~a prefix: (1) nearly or almost, as in subequal: (2) below, under.~ subsericeous~covered with appressed hairs aligned in the same direction, but lacking a lustrous sheen; like silky but coarser.~ subshrub~undershrub; a small and sometimes sparsely branched woody plant less than 1 m high.~ subspecies~a taxonomic category below species, differing in minor morphological characters such as size or shape of parts, and either partially or completely isolated, usually by means of geographical or ecological barriers.~ subtend~to stand below or close to something, to enclose.~ subtending~term describing a leaf or bract whose axil gives rise to a bud (the axillary bud) which may develop into a branch or inflorescence; less commonly (as in Notelaea species) more than one bud is subtended in each axil.~ subulate~narrow and gradually tapering to a fine apex. Fig. 6 A.~{Fig. 6 A}Fig. 6. Leaf Apices. A, subulate; B, aristate; C, acuminate; D, acute; E, obtuse; F, truncate; G, emarginate; H, retuse; I, obcordate; J, hooked; K, mucronate. sucker~a vegetative shoot of underground origin. Fig. 1 F.~{Fig. 1 F}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. sulcate~grooved; furrowed.~ superficial~on the surface.~ superfluous~unnescessary or needless.~ superior~inserted above another organ or part; a superior ovary is free from the receptacle, with the perianth and stamens inserted below it or on a perigynous hypanthium. Fig. 12 A & D.~{Fig. 12 A & D}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped. superposed~placed vertically over some other part.~ suture~a seam or line as formed at the junction of two margins.~ sward~extensive, more or less even cover of a surface, e.g. a lawn grass; cf. tussock.~ syconium~a ‘fig’, the multiple fruit formed in figs (Ficus species) by the invagination of the floral axis where the minute flowers and fruits are actually inside the swollen inflorescence stem. Fig. 18 Y. cf. aggregate fruit, syncarp.~{Fig. 18 Y}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. symmetric~divisible into two or more equal parts.~ sympatric~of two or more taxa, with more or less similar or overlapping ranges of distribution. cf. allopatric.~ sympetalous~see gamopetalous.~ sympodial~with a growing point which either terminates in an inflorescence or dies each year, the growth being continued by a new lateral branch. cf. monopodial.~ sympodium~a stem made up of a series of sympodial branches, so as to imitate a simple axis, as in some species of Dendrobium.~ syn- (sym-)~prefix: with, together.~ synandrium~an androecium with the stamens cohering, as in some members of the family Araceae. cf. syngenesious.~ synangium~composite sporangium with a number of loculi. pl. synangia.~ syncarp~a multiple fruit consisting of several united fruits, originating from several originally free carpels, usually fleshy. Fig. 18 Z. cf. aggregate fruit, syconium.~{Fig. 18 Z}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp. syncarpous~a gynoecium consisting of a number of carpels in which at least the ovaries are united; the ovary is then said to be compound. Figs. 12 & 13 B–F. cf. apocarpous.~{Fig. 12}Fig. 12. Ovary position. A, Ovary superior, floral parts hypogynous; B, ovary inferior, floral parts epigynous; C, ovary half-inferior; D, ovary superior, floral parts perigynous, hypanthium cup-shaped.#{Fig. 13 B–F}Fig. 13. Ovary Placentation. Ovaries in cross section above ovaries in longitudinal section. A, marginal; B, parietal; C, axile, ovary with 2 loculi; D, axile, ovary with 3 loculi; E, free-central; F, free-central; G, apical; H, basal. syngenesious~of the stamens of one flower fused together by the anthers to form a cylinder around the style, as in Asteraceae. cf. synandrium.~ synonym~1 of 2 or more names for the same taxon.~ syntype~one of two or more specimens cited by the author at the time of publication of a name for which no holotype was designated.~ systematics~the branch of bilogical science that deals with the giving of names (nomenclature) and classification, the establishing and defining of relationships (taxonomy); often used interchangeably with the term taxonomy.~ taproot~the main, descending root of a plant that has a single, dominant root system.~ taxon~a term used to describe a member of any taxonomic category, e.g. genus, species. pl. taxa.~ taxonomy~the study of the principles and practices of classification, the establishing and defining of relationships; often used interchangeably with systematics, but strictly taxonomy is only part of systematics.~ tendril~a long slender, coiled organ derived from an axis or leaf, or from part of one of these.~ tepal~a free segment of a perianth that is not differentiated into a calyx and corolla.~ terete~cylindric and elongated. Fig. 10 H.~{Fig. 10 H}Fig. 10. Leaves and Margins in Cross Section. A, plano-convex; B, incurved; C, involute; D, recurved; E, revolute; F, trigonous; G, triquetrous; H, terete. terminal~at the apex.~ terminal petiolule~the stalk of the terminal leaflet of a pinnately 3-foliolate leaf or an imparipinnate leaf; the stalk is usually jointed at the point where the rachis extension beyond the last leaflet meets the true petiolule of the leaflet. Fig. 3 C & K.~{Fig. 3 C & K}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. ternate~in threes, e.g. of a single leaf, having the leaflets arranged in groups of three. Fig. 3 K & L. cf. biternate.~{Fig. 3 K & L}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. terrestrial~of the land as opposed to living in water. cf. aquatic.~ tessellated~with colours or shapes arranged in squares to give a chequered appearance, e.g. of bark.~ testa~the seed coat.~ tetrad~a group of four; as in four pollen grains remaining together at maturity in Ericaceae subfamily Styphelioideae.~ tetradynamous~of an androecium, consisting of four stames of the same length and two of a different length; as in many Brassicaceae.~ tetramerous~of a flower, having four segments in each perianth whorl, and usually in each whorl of stamens also.~ tetrasporangiate (4-sporangiate)~of an anther in which there are 4 pollen sacs (sites of pollen grain formation or microsporangia). cf. unisporangiate.~ thallus~the vegetative body of a plant that is not differentiated into organs such as stems and leaves, e.g. algae, the gametophytes of many liverworts, and family Lemnaceae.~ thorn (spine)~a stiff process with a sharp point, formed by a modification of a plant organ that contains vascular tissue, e.g. a lateral branch or a stipule. cf. prickle.~ throat~of a corolla tube or hypanthium, the top where the tube joins the lobes.~ thyrse~a compound inflorescence ending in a vegetative (non-floral) bud and with mixed types of branching, the main axis bearing several or many lateral cymes. Fig. 17 C.~{Fig. 17 C}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). thyrsoid~a compound inflorescence which ends in a flower and in which the main axis is raceme-like and the lateral ones cymose, i.e. similar to a thyrse except for the terminal flower. Fig. 17 B.~{Fig. 17 B}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). tiller~the shoot of a grass, usually lateral and basal and more or less erect.~ tomentellous~minutely tomentose.~ tomentose~covered with dense intertwined hairs. Fig. 14 E. n. tomentum. cf. woolly.~{Fig. 14 E}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. tomentum~a dense covering of intertwined hairs. Fig. 14 E. adj. tomentose.~{Fig. 14 E}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. toothed~of margins, regularly or irregularly incised. Fig. 8 C.~{Fig. 8 C}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. torus~see receptacle.~ trabeculate~cross-barred.~ tree~a woody plant usually with a single distinct trunk and generally more than 5 m high.~ tri-~a prefix: in threes, as in: trifoliolate, having three leaflets; trimerous, with flower parts arranged in threes.~ triad~a three-flowered inflorescence of dichasial form. Fig. 17 F.~{Fig. 17 F}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). triangular~a 2-dimensional shape, 3-angled and 3-sided. Fig. 5 K.~{Fig. 5 K}Fig. 5. Lamina Shapes. A, filiform; B, linear; C, oblong; D, elliptic; E, circular (orbiculate); F, oblate; G, reniform; H, rhombic; I, lanceolate; J, ovate; K, triangular; L, oblanceolate M, obovate; N, falcate; O, spathulate; P, lyrate; Q, runcinate; R, pinnatifid; S, pinnatisect; T, bipinnatifid; U, palmatifid; V, palmatisect. tribe~a taxonomic grouping, in rank between family and genus.~ trichome~a hair, bristle, scale or other such outgrowth of the epidermis. Figs. 14 & 15.~{Fig. 14}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines.#{Fig. 15}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. trichotomous~branching almost equally into three parts.~ trifid~deeply divided into three parts.~ trifoliate~having three leaves. cf. trifoliolate.~ trifoliolate~of a leaf, having three leaflets. Fig. 3 K & L. See also palmately trifoliolate, pinnately trifoliolate.~{Fig. 3 K & L}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. trigonous~triangular in cross-section and with the angles somewhat rounded. Fig. 10 F. cf. triquetrous.~{Fig. 10 F}Fig. 10. Leaves and Margins in Cross Section. A, plano-convex; B, incurved; C, involute; D, recurved; E, revolute; F, trigonous; G, triquetrous; H, terete. trimerous~of a flower, having three segments in each perianth whorl and usually in each whorl of stamens also.~ trimorphic~occurring in three different forms. cf. dimorphic.~ tripinnate (3-pinnate)~of a compound leaf, with lamina pinnately divided three times, i.e. the pinnules are again pinnately divided. Fig. 3 A. cf. bipinnate.~{Fig. 3 A}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. triplicate~folded three times.~ triquetrous~triangular in cross-section and sharply angled; with three distinct longitudinal ridges. Fig. 10 G. cf. trigonous.~{Fig. 10 G}Fig. 10. Leaves and Margins in Cross Section. A, plano-convex; B, incurved; C, involute; D, recurved; E, revolute; F, trigonous; G, triquetrous; H, terete. tristylous~heterostylous species with styles of 3 different lengths (short, mid, long).~ trullate~ovate, but angled; like a brick-layer’s trowel; inverse kiteshaped.~ truncate~with an abruptly transverse edge as if cut off, e.g. of a lamina apex (Fig. 6 F), or base (Fig. 7 D).~{Fig. 6 F}Fig. 6. Leaf Apices. A, subulate; B, aristate; C, acuminate; D, acute; E, obtuse; F, truncate; G, emarginate; H, retuse; I, obcordate; J, hooked; K, mucronate.#{Fig. 7 D}Fig. 7. Leaf Bases. A, attenuate; B, cuneate; C, obtuse; D, truncate; E, asymmetric; F, cordate; G, auriculate; H, sagittate; I, hastate. tuber~an underground storage organ formed by the swelling of a stem, e.g. a potato. adj. tuberous.~ tubercle~a small wart-like outgrowth, e.g. forming the base of a hair.~ tuberculate (warty)~having the surface rough with tubercles or small wart-like outgrowths. Fig. 16 C.~{Fig. 16 C}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. tuberoid~a storage organ which is a tuber-like thickening of a root (and generally bears no lateral eyes) as in many terrestrial orchids.~ tuberous~swollen; of roots tuber-like.~ tumid~swollen; inflated.~ tunicate~with coats or tunics; as in bulbs or corms covered with a thin membranous or fibrous outer layers.~ turbinate~top-shaped.~ turgid~swollen owing to high water content.~ turion~a specialized dwarf shoot with modified leaves, and formed by some species in winter. Turions mostly fall from the parent plant, remain dormant over winter, and then sprout to form new individuals.~ tussock~a large clump or tuft, usually of a perennial herb, especially grasses.~ two-ranked (2-ranked)~arranged in two rows on opposite sides of a stem and in the same plane. Fig. 2 B.~{Fig. 2 B}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. type~the designated representative of a taxon constituting a fixed point for the application of its name, for determining priority of usage.~ umbel~an inflorescence (strictly an indeterminate one) in which all the flowers or flower-stalks arise from one point at the top of the peduncle. Fig. 17 J. adj. umbellate. cf. umbelliform.~{Fig. 17 J}Fig. 17. Inflorescence Types. (circle – flower bud; arrow – vegetative bud). A, panicle; B, thyrsoid; C, thyrse; D, dichasium; E, monochasium; F, triad; G, panicle-like; H, raceme; I, spike; J, umbel; K, corymb; L, solitary on a scape; M, solitary in axils of leaves; N, spikelet; O, head with expanded receptacle (in L.S.), as in many Asteraceae; P, head with small receptacle (in L.S.); Q, spadix; R, cyathium (in L.S.). umbellaster~a group of flowers (with the terminal bud ending in a flower) more or less arising from the one point, which may be derived from the condensation of a cyme, thyrsoid or panicle.~ umbelliform (umbelloid)~having the form of an umbel.~ umbo~a conical projection arising from the surface. adj. umbonate.~ unarmed~without spines or prickles.~ uncinate~terminating in a hooked point.~ undershrub~a small shrub, often partially herbaceous.~ undulate~wavy, i.e. not flat. Fig. 8 J. cf. sinuate.~{Fig. 8 J}Fig. 8. Leaf Margins. A, entire; B, crenate; C, toothed; D, doubly toothed; E, erose; F, lacerate; G. laciniate; H, angled; I, crisped; J, undulate; K, sinuate. uni-~prefix: one: as in unisexual, of flowers with one sex.~ uniflorescence~a unit inflorescence forming part of a conflorescence.~ unifoliolate leaf (1-foliolate)~a compound leaf reduced to a single leaflet, usually recognized by the articulated or jointed ‘petiole’, which is in fact a petiole plus a petiolule. Fig. 3 K.~{Fig. 3 K}Fig. 3. Compound Leaves (A–F & I–M) and Simple Leaves (G & H). A, tripinnate; B, bipinnate; C, imparipinnate; D, paripinnate; E, palmate; F, pedate; G, scale leaves; H, simple; I, unifoliolate (1-foliolate); J, bifoliolate (2-foliolate); K, pinnately trifoliolate; L, palmately trifoliolate; M, biternate. unigeneric~of a family, having only one genus. cf. monotypic.~ unilateral~of stamens, with anthers grouped to one side of the style.~ unilocular~of an ovary, anther or fruit, having only one internal cavity.~ unisexual~bearing only male or female reproductive organs, not both. cf. dioecious, monoecious.~ unisporangiate (1-sporangiate)~of an anther with only 1 pollen sac (area of pollen grain formation, microsporangium). cf. tetrasporangiate.~ united~fused together.~ unitubulose~organs with complete transverse septa and no obvious longitudinal septa (seen by splitting the organ). cf. pluritubulose.~ urceolate~urn-shaped.~ utricle~a small bladder; a membranous bladder-like sac enclosing an ovary or fruit.~ valvate~(1) opening by valves, e.g. loculicidal and septicidal capsules (Fig. 18 L & M), or of anther dehiscence (Fig. 20 D); (2) of floral parts, with the edges touching but not overlapping, Fig. 11 G. cf. imbricate.~{Fig. 18 L & M}Fig. 18. Fruit Types (seeds black). A–E, succulent indehiscent fruit: A, drupe, 1-seeded (in T.S.); B, drupe, 5 seeded (in T.S.); C, pome (in L.S.); D, superior berry (in L.S.); E, inferior berry (in L.S.); F–K, dry dehiscent fruits; F, many-seeded follicle; G, follicle with 2-winged seeds; H, schizocarp; I, legume or pod; J, lomentum; K, siliqua; L–P, capsules: L, loculicidal capsule; M, septicidal capsule; N, poricidal casule; O, circumsciss capsule; P, schizocarp capsule; Q–U, dry indehiscent fruits, with sections showing position of seed: Q, achene from a superior ovary; R, achene from inferior ovary with apical pappus; S, caryopsis; T, nut; U, samara; V–X, aggregate fruits in L.S.: V, rose ‘hip’, individual fruits drupelets; W, strawberry, individual fruits achenes; X, blackberry, individual fruits drupelets; Y & Z, multiple fruits in L.S.: Y, syconium or ‘fig’; Z, syncarp.#{Fig. 20 D}Fig. 20. Anthers, Stamens. A, anther dorsifixed and versatile; B, anther basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal; C, cross section of anther showing loculi and regions of dehiscence; D, dehiscence by valves; E, dehiscence by apical pores; F, diadelphous stamens; G, monadelphous stamens; H, stamens with anthers fused (and with terminal appendages), filaments free.#{Fig. 11 G}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. valve~a lid or segment of an anther or capsule which opens or separates at dehiscence.~ variety~a taxonomic category below that of species (and subspecies if both used); differentiates variable populations.~ vascular plants~plants containing vascular tissue; the more highly evolved plants above mosses and liverworts.~ vascular tissue~tissue specialized for the conduction of fluids.~ vector~a carrier or transferring agent, e.g. transfer of pollen to the stigma by wind or insect etc.~ vein~a strand of vascular tissue; the primary vein or midvein gives rise to secondary or lateral veins and in turn tertiary veins. See venation.~ veinlet~a small vein; the ultimate (visible) division of a vein.~ velamen~a water-retaining outer layer of aerial roots of some epiphytes, especially orchids.~ velum~a membranous covering; a veil.~ velvety~very densely covered with fine short soft erect hairs. Fig. 14 A.~{Fig. 14 A}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. venation~the arrangement of veins in a leaf. Fig. 9.~{Fig. 9}Fig. 9. Venation Patterns. A, pinnate; B, 3-veined from base; C, palmate; D, leaves palmately veined, lobes pinnately veined; E, longitudinal; F, parallel; G, dichotomous; H, reticulate; I, areolate. ventral (adaxial)~towards the axis or stem. cf. dorsal.~ vernation~the arrangement of the unexpanded leaves in a bud. Fig. 11. cf. aestivation.~{Fig. 11}Fig. 11. Vernation and Aestivation. A, circinate; B, equitant; C, conduplicate; D, convolute; E, contorted; F, imbricate; G, valvate; H, induplicate; I, plicate. verrucose~warty.~ verruculose~finely warty.~ versatile~of an anther, attached near its midpoint to a filament so that the anther swings freely. Fig. 20 A. cf. basifixed, dorsifixed.~{Fig. 20 A}Fig. 20. Anthers, Stamens. A, anther dorsifixed and versatile; B, anther basifixed, dehiscence longitudinal; C, cross section of anther showing loculi and regions of dehiscence; D, dehiscence by valves; E, dehiscence by apical pores; F, diadelphous stamens; G, monadelphous stamens; H, stamens with anthers fused (and with terminal appendages), filaments free. verticillate~in a whorl.~ vesicle~a bladder-like sac or cavity filled with gas or liquid. e.g. of hairs that are inflated and bladder-like; vesicular hairs often collapse and form a silvery layer on the surface of the organ on which they are formed. Fig. 15 D. adj. vesicular.~{Fig. 15 D}Fig. 15. Trichome Types. A, simple hairs; b, tubercle-based hairs; C, glandular hairs; D, vesicular hairs; E, moniliform hairs; F, dendritic hairs; G, stellate hairs; H, peltate scales; I, elongate scales; J, barbed bristles; K, plumose hair. vessel~a capillary tube formed from a series of open-ended cells in the water-conducting tissue of a plant.~ vestigial~reduced from the ancestral condition and no longer functional. cf. rudimentary, obsolete.~ vicariant~of species, one of a closely related group with a replacement pattern in different areas of distribution; e.g. see Casuarina obesa and C. glauca.~ villous~covered with long shaggy hairs, not matted. Fig. 14 G.~{Fig. 14 G}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. virgate~with many long slender ascending almost parallel branches. Fig. 1 C.~{Fig. 1 C}Fig. 1. Plant Habits and Growth Forms. A, erect; B, ascending; C, virgate; D, intricate; E, divaricate; F, suckers; G, coppice shoots; H, lignotuber; I, epiphytes; J, decumbent; K, procumbent; L, prostrate; M, stoloniferous; N, rhizomatous; O, pendent. viscid~sticky.~ viscidium~of orchids, a viscid (sticky) part of the rostellum which is clearly defined and removed with the pollinia to an insect or other pollination vector.~ viscous~of a liquid, not pouring freely; having the consistency of syrup or honey.~ viviparous~of seed, germinating while the fruit is still attached to the plant, as in Rhizophoraceae. cf. proliferous.~ voucher~a specimen preserved (with documentation) to substantiate recorded observations, and to which reference can be made in the future to verify the identity of the plant.~ wallum~sandy coastal sites with impeded drainage, usually supporting heath, scrubby communities or swamps.~ warty (tuberculate)~covered with wart-like protuberances. Fig. 16 C.~{Fig. 16 C}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. weed~a plant growing out of place or where it is not wanted; often characterized by high seed production and their ability to colonise disturbed ground quickly.~ wet sclerophyll forest~an open forest in which mesomorphic (soft-leaved) shrubs form a layer below the trees (usually species of eucalypts). cf. dry sclerophyll forest.~ whorl~a ring of leaves, bracts or floral parts borne at the same level on a stem or axis. Fig. 2 F. See also verticillate, pseudowhorled.~{Fig. 2 F}Fig. 2. Leaf Arrangement. A, alternate; B, alternate and 2-ranked; C, opposite; D, opposite and decussate; E, equitant; F, whorled; G, pseudowhorled; H, imbricate; I, basal; J, fascicled. wing~(1) a membranous expansion of a fruit or seed which aids dispersal; (2) a thin flange of tissue on a stem or petiole; (3) a lateral petal in the family Fabaceae subfamily Faboideae.~ woodland~a plant community dominated by short-boled trees (usually species of eucalypts) that are separated from each other and with grasses and other herbs forming a more or less continuous ground cover between them.~ woolly~densely covered with matted long hairs. Fig. 14 F. cf. tomentose, villous.~{Fig. 14 F}Fig. 14. Indumentum Types and Surface Appendages. A–H, surface and cross sectional views. A, velvety; B, pubescent; C, silky; D, felted; E, tomentose; F, woolly; G, villous; H, pilose; I, ciliate; J, fimbriate; K–P, stems; K, scabrous; L, hirsute; M, strigose; N, bristles; O, prickles; P, spines. wrinkled~covered with coarse lines or furrows. Fig. 16 G.~{Fig. 16 G}Fig. 16. Surface Patterns. A, colliculate; B, muricate; C, warty; D, papillate; E, glandular; F, bullate; G, wrinkled; H, striate. xeromorph~a plant having structural features usually associated with plants of arid habitats (such as hard or succulent leaves) but not necessarily drought-tolerant. cf. scleromorph, xerophyte.~ xerophyte~a drought-tolerant plant.~ xylem~the tissue, in a vascular plant, that conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves. cf. phloem.~ zygomorphic~of a flower with the parts such as sepals and petals differing in shape, size, position and/or number so that the flower can be bisected in one plane only; bilaterally symmetrical. cf. actinomorphic.~